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4 Mind 4 Life: Mental Health Tips
Mental Health Tips
Top 50 Geniuses Of All Time – [In A Random Order]
Created by Drew | : Boost Brain Power
1) Albert Einstein - Albert Einstein is a name that comes to mind first when thinking of geniuses. Einstein’s brain was found to be deficient in certain parts, but extraordinarily powerful in others. Another trait of Albert’s brain was the fact that he had a much larger corpus callosum than the average man. The corpus callosum connects the right and left hemispheres and allows them to successfully transfer information back and forth (communicate with one another). Einstein has received the Nobel Prize in physics, was named “Person Of The Century” by Time Magazine, and has contributed phenomenal theories to the world of science (i.e. theory of relativity, unique field theory, etc).
2) Leonardo Da Vinci - Leonardo Da Vinci is considered one of the best painters of all time and possibly the most multi-talented man to have ever lived! Two of his works include: The Last Super & The Mona Lisa. Da Vinci was truly ahead of his time with ideas such as: a helicopter, a tank, solar power, a calculator, and a theory of plate tectonics. Leonardo was a unique individual who exercised the curiosity of his powerful brain.
3) Nikola Tesla- Tesla was a renowned physicist, inventor, and engineer. He has made phenomenal contributions to science and has been classified as the “world’s greatest electrical engineer.” Nikola engaged in studying many works, memorizing complete books, and supposedly had a photographic memory. Tesla had above average brain power and was an advanced thinker when compared to others of his time.
4) Sir Isaac Newton - Sir Isaac Newton was an astronomer astronomer, physicist, inventor, mathematician, and philosopher. In a 2005 poll, Newton was named more influential than Einstein in science. He has developed laws of motion, principles of momentum, and invented the reflecting telescope. Newton has had tons of great scientific achievements. His diverse list of scientific and mathematic accomplishments demonstrate the incredible ability of his brain.
5) Stephen Hawking - Hawking is known best for his theories of black holes, cosmology, and quantum gravity. He has also written several bestselling books such as: “A Brief History Of Time” and “The Universe In A Nutshell.” Though Stephen is currently bound to a wheelchair due to paralysis from Lou Gehrig’s disease (ALS). Hawking has been recognized as a revolutionary thinker and one who displays above average intelligence.
6) Michelangelo - Michelangelo was a phenomenal painter, sculptor, architect, and poet. His diverse interest in art and the world really showed. He sculpted the Pieta and the David before he was 30 years old! He painted the Sistine Chapel and worked on the dome of St. Peter’s Basilica. Michelangelo was a genius that was able to bring an entirely new artistic perspective from his mind to reality.
7) Archimedes - Archimedes was a Greek philosopher, engineer, inventor and astronomer. He is also considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time. Though there isn’t a ton of documented information regarding his personal life, we do know that he has had a large impact on science and physics. Archimedes’ thoughts were clearly ahead of his time: not many would disagree that he was a genius.
8) Warren Buffet – Though Warren Buffet isn’t a big contributor to science like many other names listed, he does have a ton of knowledge about making money through investing. He is a known philanthropist (someone who donates their time & money for charitable causes) and Time Magazine has regarded Buffet as one of the Top 100 Most Influential People in the world. He was also ranked by Forbes in 2008 as the richest person in the world. His company [Berkshire Hathaway] has an estimated net worth of $62 billion dollars. Warren is a very intelligent man and a financial genius.
9) Swami Vivekananda - In the Eastern world, Swami Vivekananda is regarded as a genius by many. He was one of the most influential and spiritual leaders ever and was a highly-renowned thinker. Because of his insight and unique philosophy that he had contributed to eastern religions, his knowledge and intellect will continue to be admired.
10) Samuel Johnson - Samuel Johnson is regarded as one of the biggest literary influences of all time. He was a biographer, critic, and essayist. Johnson is the highest quoted author since William Shakespeare and was one of the most influential people in the 18th century. The man invented and compiled terms for what many consider the first official dictionary.
11) Immanuel Kant - Immanuel Kant was an 18th-century philosopher from Russia. He has been considered one of the most influential thinkers of all time in Europe. Kant brought forth a unique theory of perception and thought deeply about life. Many regard Kant as a genius of his time.
12) Aristotle - Aristotle was a Greek philosopher, student of Plato and one who taught Alexander the Great. Aristotle became a great writer and is regarded as one of the most important and influential figures towards shaping Western philosophy. His works were the first to ever study “logic” and he had a profound influence on others during his time.
13) Pablo Picasso - Though Picasso may not have been an amazing scientist, his revolutionary mind forever changed the way people looked at art. He was a master drawer, painter, and sculptor. He founded “cubism” – an art style which became a huge movement in the 20th century. Pablo Picasso’s unique perception, which he expressed through his art, caused many people to view reality from a different perspective.
14) Niles Bohr - Niels Bohr was a phenomenal physicist and a highly advanced thinker. He invented the Bohr Model which is regarded as a huge contribution to atomic physics. Bohr was heavily involved with post World War II scientific issues and carried a great head on his shoulders.
15) Thomas Jefferson - Thomas Jefferson was a very brilliant individual. He was the 3rd president of the United States, wrote The Declaration Of Independence, and was the most influential Founding Father for the U.S. He influenced the republican party and was a horticulturist, statesman, architect, author and inventor. Jefferson was the founder of the University of Virginia and understood that slavery was unethical in a time when most everyone else thought it was proper. Thomas Jefferson was definitely had an exceptional brain.
16) Plato - Plato was a Greek philosopher that was taught by Socrates, but taught Aristotle. Along with Socrates and Aristotle, Plato helped lay the groundwork for Western philosophy. He was known to be a mathematician, great writer, and founded “the Academy” or “institute of higher education and learning,” in Athens. His works in philosophy, logic, and mathematics, were studied and used by many teachers after his time. Not only was Plato a revolutionary thinker, he was a genius of his time.
17) Winston Churchill – Winston Churchill was a rightfully famous British politician during World War II. He is well-known for his abilities as a great leader, speaker, officer in the British Army, a historical writer, and an artist. Churchill became a hero of his time and is considered one of the most intelligent men of his time.
18) Benjamin Franklin - Benjamin Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the U.S., an author, and a printer. He was also a great politician, inventor, and scientist. Benjamin Franklin’s scientific contributions have shaped physics and the field of electricity. He invented the lightning rod, bifocals, the Franklin stove, the odometer, and the glass harmonica. Franklin created the first public lending library in the United States and first fire department in the city of Pennsylvania. Ben Franklin was a true genius of his time.
19) Thomas Edison – Thomas Edison was a great inventor and businessman who created many appliances that have had profound influence on life around the world. A couple of his inventions are: the phonograph and a long lasting light bulb. Jefferson was also one of the first inventors to apply the idea of “mass production” to the invention process. Many give Jefferson credit with creating the first ever industrial research lab. He is considered one of the most gifted inventors ever and holds over 1,000 United States patents. Edison truly added his touch of genius to the scientific community.
20) Daniel Tammet - Daniel Tammet is a high-functioning autistic savant. He has been gifted with a knack for mathematics, language learning, and above average memorization skills. He was featured on a discovery channel special that tested his abilities and showed his ability to learn arguably the toughest language, Icelandic, in less than 7 days to appear in an interview. Daniel has an incredible brain and was gifted with an above-average intellect.
21) William Shakespeare - William Shakespeare was a poet, playwright, and has been hailed “the greatest writer” in the English language and the worlds best dramatist. He has been deemed the national poet of England and his works include: nearly 40 plays, around 150 sonnets, and 2 long poems. Shakespeare’s plays have been translated into every language, and are performed more often than any other playwright. Shakespeare shed his genius-like thoughts through his complex storytelling.
22) Kim Peek - Though Kim Peek is a savant, he has some exceptional brain abilities. He is lacking a functional corpus callosum (which makes it impossible for his right and left brain hemispheres to exchange information) and has a damaged cerebellum. Without a corpus callosum, some develop above average memory abilities. In Kim Peek’s case, he can read a new book in about 1 hour and manages to retain over 98% of the information within the book! Impressive.
23) Ludwig van Beethoven - Beethoven was a German pianist and legendary musician. He was very influential in Western classical music and is thought of as the best composer of all time. Though Beethoven’s hearing began to cease in his early twenties, he was still able to create classical masterpieces. He was able to conduct, compose, and perform music even after he was completely deaf! Beethoven blessed the world with his musical genius and brilliant mind.
24) Srinivasa Ramanujan - Srinivasa was an Indian mathematician who was able to make huge contributions in the area of mathematical analysis and number theory. Srinivasa demonstrated an uncanny, natural ability to master mathematics. He had a complete math book mastered by 13, and even discovered theorems of his own. He won many awards by showing others his superior mathematical ability at his school. By age 17, this mathematical prodigy was doing his own research with mathematics and numbers. He compiled nearly 4,000 equations and identities in his short lifetime.
25) Johann Sebastian Bach - Bach was an exceptional composer and organist. He specialized in choir, orchestra, and solo instruments. He was able to enrich the German composing style with a full harmonic scale and was able to adapt rhythms from Italy and France. Though his music began early in the 19th century, he is now noted as one of the greatest composers in the Western tradition. Bach was yet another musical genius.
26) Wolfgang Amedeus Mozart - Mozart was a very influential composer during the classical era. He was able to create over 600 compositions that were widely accepted and acknowledged. His music specialties included symphony, chamber music, piano, opera, and choral music. Mozart is among the most popular of classical composers, and many of his works are still included in concerts today. Mozart clearly demonstrated his musical proficiency and level of genius.
27) Sir Francis Drake - Drake was a famous traveler, navigator, and politician from England. He managed to circumnavigate the world in 1577 and has been proclaimed a legend in England. Drake was an exceptionally smart individual and had an estimated I.Q. of 130. Sir Francis was a powerful man that happened to have an incredibly powerful brain.
28) George Berkeley - George Berkeley was an Irish philosopher and developed a famous theory of “immaterialism.” Berkeley also published a book called “The Analyst” that would critique calculus and influence common day mathematics. University Of California, Berkeley was named after George due to his intelligence and philosophical insight.
29) Ludwig Wittgenstein - Ludwig was an Austrian philosopher that developed theories involving logic. He contributed to the philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of language, and philosophy of the mind. He has had a huge influence on philosophy and is widely accepted as one of the twentieth century’s best philosophers. Wittengenstein published 2 books and both were highly influential in philosophy.
30) Socrates - Socrates is regarded as one of the best ancient greek philosophers of all time. As teacher of Plato, he has been associated with highly advanced thinking during his time. His work continues to form much of the foundation for the study of philosophy today. Socrates has made important contributions to the study of logic and writings, and has provided a lot of groundwork that much of the Western civilization has followed.
31) Linus Pauling – Linus Pauling was a peace activist, scientist, author, and teacher. Pauling is regarded as one of the most influential chemists in history and was one of the most important scientists of all time. He was one of the pioneers to work in the study of molecular biology and quantum chemistry. He has been awarded more than 1 Nobel Prize and is one of only 2 individuals to receive them for different fields.
32) Christopher Michael Langan - Christopher Langan is an American with an IQ was reported by “20/20″ and other media sources to have been measured at nearly 200. Though he used to work as a bouncer in Long Island, he rose to fame as “the smartest man in America” in 1999. Langan has developed “a theory of the relationship between mind and reality” which he calls the “Cognitive-Theoretic Model of the Universe and is still alive today. This man has one of the highest I.Q.’s ever on Earth.
33) Michael Faraday - Michael Faraday was a phenomenal chemist and physicist who contributed to the fields of electrochemistry and electromagnetics. His inventions of electromagnetic devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became available for use in technology. Faraday was also the very first Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain.
34) Blaise Pascal – Blaise Pascal was a French physicist, religious philosopher, and great mathematician. Pascal was a child prodigy and was taught a lot by his father. Pascal’s contributions included: mechanical calculators, concepts of pressure, concepts of vacuum, and the study of fluids. In literature, Pascal is regarded as one of the most important authors of the French classical period. His name (Pascal) has been given to the SI unit of pressure, some programming language, and Pascal’s law.
35) Galileo Galilei - Galileo Galilei was a legendery astronomer, physicist, mathematician, and philosopher. He played a major role in the scientific revolution. His achievements include the first studies of uniformly accelerated motion, improvements to the telescope, and astronomical observations. Galileo has been called the “father of modern observational astronomy”, the “father of modern physics”, the “father of science”, and “the Father of Modern Science.” With his discoveries and studies, Galileo was able to display his brilliance.
36) Martin Luther - Martin Luther was a German professor, a monk, theologian, and church reformer. Luther’s theology challenged the authority of the church by stating that the Bible is the only infallible source of religious authority and that all baptized Christians are a priesthood of believers. According to Luther, salvation was attainable only by true repentance and faith in “Jesus as the Messiah.” His revolutionary ideas inspired the Protestant Reformation and changed the philosophy of Western civilization.
37) Robert Boyle - Was a natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, inventor, and early gentleman scientist. Boyle was largely known for his works in physics and chemistry. He is best known for the creation of “Boyle’s law.” Boyle is recognized today as one of the first modern chemists and one of the founding fathers of chemistry. One of his works, “The Sceptical Chymist” is viewed as a legendary book in the field of chemistry.
38) John Locke - John Locke was a phenomenal English philosopher. Locke’s ideas had a huge influence on the development of political philosophy and he is considered one of the most influential thinkers during the Enlightenment and one of the biggest contibutors to liberal theory. Locke’s influence is reflected in the American Declaration of Independence. Locke was the first philosopher to define the self through a continuity of “consciousness.” John Locke was an independent thinker and among the greatest philosophers.
39) Charles Darwin - Charles Darwin was a naturalist and geologist who proposed that all species of life have evolved over time. The fact that evolution occurs became accepted by the scientific community and the general public. Darwin’s scientific discovery remains the foundation of biology. Darwin is yet another great thinker of his time and his theories are still studied and discussed today.
40) Johannes Kepler - Kepler was a German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer. He was a huge influence towards the astronomical revolution of the 17th century. Kepler is best known for his laws of planetary motion. His laws also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton’s theory of universal gravitation. Kepler is regarded as a man with revolutionary thoughts towards astronomy.
41) Napoleon Bonaparte - Napoleon Bonaparte was a political and French military leader who had a huge influence on European history. Napoleon was a general during the French Revolution, Emperor of France, King of Italy, and Mediator of the Swiss. Napoleon was a very intelligent military leader who used innovative tactics and strategy to help him win many battles.
42) Garry Kasparov – Garry Kasparov was a former World Chess Champion, writer, and political activist. Kasparov was a candidate for the Russian presidential race of 2008. Kasparov holds the all-time highest chess rating of 2851 and records for consecutive tournament victories.
43) John Stuart Mill – John Stuart Mill largely influenced British thought and politics in the 19th century. His large number of works include: texts in logic, economics, social and political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, and religion. John Stuart Mill is recognized as one of the most intelligent men of his time and is regarded as one of the smartest men of all time.
44) Rene Descartes - Rene Descartes was an influential philosopher, mathematician, scientist, and writer. Descartes has been given the title “Father of Modern Philosophy,” and has contributed a lot to Western philosophy. His writings are still being studied today and he has had a huge influence in mathematics. Rene was a key figure in the scientific revolution and was able to share his incredible insights with others.
45) George Washington - George Washington was the first President of the United States, and lead the U.S. continental Army to defeat the British in the Revolutionary war. Washington is viewed as a symbol of the United States and republican party. He has been consistently ranked by citizens as one of the greatest presidents of the United States.
46) Miguel de Cervantes – Miguel de Cervantes was a Spanish novelist, poet, painter and playwright. He is one of the most influential and important people in literature and the leader of culture in 16th century Spain. Cervantes’ novel “Don Quixote” is considered a classic of Western literature and has been ranked among the best novels ever written. Miguel de Cervantes’ work is considered among the most important in all of literature!
47) Francois Marie-Arouet – Commonly known by the pen-name Voltaire, Francois Marie-Arouet was a French Enlightenment writer, essayist, and philosopher. He was known for his wit, defense of civil liberties, and philosophy. He was an outspoken supporter of social reform and was one of several Enlightenment figures whose works and ideas influenced important thinkers of both the American and French Revolutions.
48) Baruch de Spinoza - Baruch de Spinoza was a Dutch philosopher that was very proficient in science. Most of Spinoza’s work was not recognized until after his death. Today, Spinoza is regarded as one of the greatest 17th century philosophers. His work in philosophy laid the foundation for the 18th century Enlightenment.
49) Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz - Leibniz was a German polymath who is regarded as one of the greatest philosophers. Liebniz invented calculus, and his version is widely used. He also discovered the binary system, the structure of modern computer architectures. He was, along with Rene Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, one of the 3 greatest 17th century philosophers. He also made major contributions to physics, technology, and made anticipations that surfaced much later in biology, medicine, geology, probability theory, psychology, and linguistics. Liebniz also wrote about politics, law, ethics, theology, and history.
50) Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a German writer whose works span the fields of poetry, drama, literature, theology, humanism, and science. Goethe was a key figure in German literature and the movement of Weimar Classicism in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Goethe is the inventor of the concept of “world literature,” having taken great interest in the literatures of England, France, Italy, classical Greece, Persia, and Arabic literature. His influence on German philosophy is unparalleled and his influence has spread across Europe. Many of his works were a primary source of inspiration in music, drama, and poetry. Goethe is considered one of the most important thinkers in the Western culture and generally recognized as the most important writer in the German language.
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102 Responses to “Top 50 Geniuses Of All Time – [In A Random Order]”
on 01 Apr 2008 at 5:47 pm # Obi
Dude, I love this post and I think your Top 3 are spot on, but…
How the hell can you put Warren Buffett in the Top 10, and like 20 spots above Socrates?!
And where is Marcus Aurelius in all this madness!?!
You’ve got some explaining to do man…
on 02 Apr 2008 at 2:15 am # Drew
Hey Obi,
Glad to hear you enjoyed it. I didn’t put them in a “ranked” order. I’m planning another project where intelligence will be “ranked.”
Thanks for your comments :)
on 02 Apr 2008 at 2:21 am # Obi
Alright bro, you’re in the clear. :)
on 09 Jul 2008 at 1:25 pm # Ranjeet
hi..
I guess John Nash did an incredible job too… His mind was quoted as “A beautiful mind” indeed…
What say??
Ranjeet
on 07 Oct 2008 at 6:24 pm # stardust
Interesting list, I feel Rudolph Steiner should have appeared on it though!
Stardust
on 26 Nov 2008 at 6:41 am # Mark
Where’s Richard Feynman? He was a by far the most brilliant physicist — way beyond Hawking, just not as stereotypical.
on 29 Dec 2008 at 7:48 pm # sad
whats the point? all born geniuses what’s the point for losers to read about them. its not like you can get as good as these guys.
on 30 Dec 2008 at 6:37 am # Obi
Don’t be so sad, Sad.
Geniuses aren’t born, they’re created. And you have the power to be just as great, if not greater, if you decide to be.
on 06 Feb 2009 at 1:12 am # Bill
u r list is a little messed up…it only list people with magnificent achievement and a major influence to humankind. The definition of genius. 1.exceptional intellectual or creative power or other natural ability. 2 an exceptionally intelligent or able person. from oxford university dictionary. like i don’t understand why Winston Churchill is on there, he is not like insane smart.
Thanks
on 12 Feb 2009 at 6:14 pm # lawal mustapha oluwatosin
genetically ingenious
on 21 Feb 2009 at 5:39 am # Mimi
Where are the women? Are there no women geniuses?
Here’s my try at a list, in no particular order:
Marie Curie
Sor Juana Inez de la Cruz
Elizabeth I
Jane Addams
Lady Murasaki
Jane Austen
Charlotte Brontë
Joni Mitchell
Toni Morrison
Golda Meir
on 21 Feb 2009 at 5:34 pm # eq
there are no women on this list..
on 22 Feb 2009 at 7:35 pm # alaa
I cannot believe sigmund freud is not up there!
on 25 Feb 2009 at 11:07 pm # Jven
hey a friend told me about a book of the most brilliant minds in hstory where can I find it??
on 22 Mar 2009 at 8:42 pm # Martin
Very good list I must say,though I would add Salvador Dali to the list as well.
on 22 Apr 2009 at 1:22 pm # ilias
Well, it is subjective as who to put in this list. I mean Napoleaon was a great general, but was he really smarter than julius ceasar or alexander the great who expanded his empire to India? Philosopher Karl Marx is not on the list as well as Homer and Hippokrates father of medicine.
on 24 May 2009 at 12:39 am # tathiana
WHERES MARX!!!!???
on 28 Jun 2009 at 8:00 am # kristofferson
awesome lists dude.. notify me(if you can) when u get that “ranked” lists of brilliant people =)
on 13 Jul 2009 at 4:04 pm # ajit vadakayil
gentlemen,
NICOLA TESLA SHOULD HAVE BEEN NUMBER ONE!
von neumann should have come ahead of albert einstein.
does anybody know that einstein borrowed ideas, as he was working in the patents office?
like how marconi and edison borrowed tesla’s ideas!
CAPT AJIT VADAKAYIL
on 06 Aug 2009 at 2:15 pm # yasha
Kasparov doesn’t belong on this list.
I’d never put Picasso ahead of Van Gogh and Rembrandt.
Some so-called “geniuses” are noted here for their IQs and how quickly they can absorb information (such as Peek). I am not aware of the full range of Peek’s abilities, but true genius is not so much about absorbing information quickly (reading a book in under an hour, say), but is actually about creative potential, new ideas, etc…
Where is Dante and Chaucer here?
What about Rumi?
Dostoyevsky?
Julius Caesar?
William Blake?
Krishnamurti is a more interesting thinker than Vivekananda.
What about the spiritual geniuses, such as Buddha, Jesus, etc? Where are they?
This is far from a satisfactory list.
I don’t know about Samuel Johnson either. As admirable as he was, compared with the geniuses I listed here, he had mechanical talents.
Descartes – overrated. His statement “I think, therefore I am” is childish, something even the laziest Buddhist philosopher would never say. And Buddhists were around centuries before he lived. It would have been better had Hume been included instead, though I have my doubts about the inclusion of Hume…
on 06 Aug 2009 at 2:28 pm # yasha
I should have said: “Where are Dante and Chaucer here?”
Other serious candidates:
Li Po
Whitman
Hafez
Brahms
Wagner
Heifetz
Dickinson
King David
Nagarjuna
Ibsen
Nietzsche
on 20 Aug 2009 at 8:05 am # D Armor
Please do your research and include Richard Feynman. One of the most brilliant physics and mathematicians ever. The more you read about him the more you will put in in your top 50; I promise. He could replace Kim Peek who really did not do anything relavent.
on 17 Sep 2009 at 6:56 am # Amran
Hey what about Muhammad the prophet?
on 30 Sep 2009 at 1:54 pm # Cesar
Just one question to show you what is more important for mankind…..
Do you know who was the richest man of the world when Socrates was alive?
Did you notice in one documentary, that even the US military was involved trying to find Mozart’s DNA?
Can you imagine doing that trying to get the austrian’s emperor DNA or the DNA of a very wealthy man of that time?
The richest men tend to benefit THEMSELVES…..the work of the REAL genius of the mankind, tend to benefit HUMANS….think about it.
Socrates, Da Vinci, Newton, Darwin, Galileo, Bohr…..
Wich of them were the wealthiest of their time?
on 01 Oct 2009 at 4:53 am # Raymond
good list i like but imo if your going to put thomas jefferson and washington lincoln has to be there as well. he is considered the greatest president by a lot.
on 13 Oct 2009 at 6:19 am # SONNY
WHERE IS DR. JOSE RIZAL OF PHILIPPINES??HE’S A GENIUS MAN WHO IS VERY HUMBLE..HE KNOWS A LOT WHEN IT COMES TO ARTS,MEDICINE,POETRY,,HE IS AN EXCELLENT PAINTER,SCULPTOR,AUTHOR,MATHEMATICIAN,PHYSICIST,OPTHALMOLOGIST,NATIONAL HERO OF THE PHILIPPINES,PHILOSOPHER,THEOLOGIAN,EDUCATOR,CONVERSANT IN ALL LANGUAGES IN THE WORLD,POET,WRITER AND HE HAS A VERY UNIQUE TALENT WHICH ALBERT EINSTEIN CANNOT DO,HE MUST BE PUT AS NUMBER ONE…AND FOR YOUR INFO HE GOT AN EXCELLENT GRADES IN ALL SUBJECTS WHEN HE WAS STILL STUDYING
on 27 Oct 2009 at 10:57 am # acube
Why did Galileo Galilei ended up at top 30 only? He was like the founder of modern science! I was hoping to see James Clerk Maxwell and some strategic military geniuses like Alexander the Great and Julius Cesar who almost took over the world itself!
on 28 Oct 2009 at 8:56 pm # Pablo
I think we need more than one list, or else make an effort to look beyond the white male world.
on 29 Oct 2009 at 10:37 am # Genius
Obi got caught!
on 30 Oct 2009 at 12:15 am # ryan
besides many others mentioned before, i would put particular emphasis on adding nietsche
on 13 Nov 2009 at 10:09 am # lostto
I reviewed this list looking to solve a personal mystery thats plagued me for the last 10 yrs or so…I read a reference once that described a man living in the 5th or 6th century as the most brilliant and accomplished mind of all time. I was very surprised I’d never heard the name, since I read alot of history books.
My recollection of the bio was as follows: he was born in the 5th or 6th century in the south of France to a undistinguished, uneducated family; recognized as brilliant by church officials, he was placed in and educated by the church very early in his life, and spent the rest of his life in Italy. He was renowned in several fields, but especially mathematics and philosophy.
Several figures fit most parts of this bio (Pope Gregory, Gaspard Monge, and 1-2 others), but are way off for a major detail. Any help in id-ing this person is appreciated!
BTW…George Washington!? Do you mean Thomas Jefferson? Washington wrote next to nothing compared with his contemporaries, nor was he an intellectual or highly educated man. A brilliant military talent perhaps, but little else distinguished him. I’ve never understood anyone stating he was a great president. More like in the right place at the time, and a compromise, default pick for the first, based on his military heroism. It was Jefferson who was so renowned for his well-rounded genius, pursuit of knowledge, and brilliant writings.
on 16 Nov 2009 at 12:15 pm # Lenya
It seems that this list was created by one person, with his ideas and without anything other.
Of course most of first 20 are really geniuses, but it’s very strange that some living peoples did nothing genially and added in this list only after they high results on IQ test. Also strange that no women in list, i think here could be Curie at least.
Now we can’t rate geniuses of antique world in one list with living people; author tried to do it, but had not good result.
PS:I’m sorry for my bad english
on 16 Nov 2009 at 9:06 pm # Jimi
Where are the eskimos? Are there no esquimaux geniuses?
Hawking is a popular writer with a lot of time on his hands not Da Vinci. Same with Warren Buffett, right place at the right time.
Carl Jung, John Coltrane, and Milton Erickson had more sophisticated minds
on 17 Nov 2009 at 1:03 am # BOBALOO
What about Helen Keller??? I would call her one because she SURVIVED BEING DEAF AND BLIND! And I do believe that Dr. Jose Rizal should have been on the list. He is a very powerful person who changed the Phillipines. Lincoln maybe should be on there but IDK.
on 27 Nov 2009 at 7:25 am # deadman
please consider Henry Cavendish as he might be even at one of the top spots
on 12 Jan 2010 at 6:41 am # Alex
I agree with Mimi!
And, I believe Kate Bush should be added. I just think she is a “brilliant” musician. Brilliant! But, I am biased…a little.
on 19 Jan 2010 at 4:43 am # David
Nooo in no wayy is Einstein #1 they say his IQ was in the 160′s. At the age of eleven Ted Kaczynski had an IQ of 169
on 04 Feb 2010 at 11:12 am # jake
Muhammad the prophet should definitely be cosidered. I am a white male(trying not to be biased) and i think some women should be included (Mimi’s list has some good suggestions). Also more people beyond the western world should be considered. And yes it does seem like one person created this list. What about Adolf Hitler (even though we perceive him to be evil).
on 15 Feb 2010 at 7:58 am # Cindi
Only white men make the genius list? I must conclude the list-maker and applauders would certainly not make the list. And I am not asking for token names. But a measure that truly covers the range of genius.
on 18 Feb 2010 at 11:20 pm # dasma
An incomplete list, Wittgenstein as nro. 1 for me. And Plato over Socrates? But well done anyway, a good list for starters.
And yes there are no women geniuses, there never was and never will be, since genius is the highest form of masculinity there is.
on 21 Feb 2010 at 8:16 pm # IOAN COSMA
I cannot believe that Lagrange is not on the list.
on 12 Mar 2010 at 9:31 pm # Punchy
3 words: A Dolf Hitler
Oh, and Wayne Gretzky too.
on 26 Mar 2010 at 9:22 am # ashkara
haha..this list is clearly meaningless…no Muhammad included..if you could think logically, this guy have supergreat influenced and huge amounts of followers. now there around 1.4 billion muslim peoples which follow muhammad teaching. so there are so weird if this great guy havent listed.
on 15 Apr 2010 at 8:52 pm # IQ is subjective
Firstly , I would like to point out that the measurement of IQ and intelligence in general is subjective.Secondly , I think that a lot of the people on the list are not geniuses , but rather just individuals who did something important. Also a lot of physicists and mathematicians were missed out , in fact almost all of the list should have been filled with them.
on 26 May 2010 at 6:49 pm # nicolass vpn ahn
nikola tesla should rule
he is the best
smater then eistien and fuke george washington
on 08 Jun 2010 at 3:04 am # Fish
Punchy, Hitler may have been pretty smart at the beginning, but he let the power get the best of him, so that was pretty foolish right there. Besides, Goebbels was the real genius, with all of his work with the propaganda. And Gretzky is just plain awesome XD
on 24 Jun 2010 at 10:35 am # Anush
Few more must have’s..
Science: Fermi, Tsiolkovsky
Medicine: Pasteur, Fleming
Humanitarian: Gandhi, Mother Theresa
Sports: Pele, Maradona, Tal, Bradman
Economics: Caines, Marx, Chanakya
Film: Chaplin, Stanislavsky, Hitchcock
on 15 Aug 2010 at 12:08 pm # list is bollocks
Where are Euler, Gauss, Fermat, Chopin?
Warren Buffet? Are you kidding me?
on 16 Aug 2010 at 3:42 pm # TOM THOMAS
This list meaning less top genius man of all time is
OSHO RAJNEESH (indian mystic)
GAUTAM BUDDHA
Jain 24 Tirthankara MAHAVIR
LAO TZU (TAO)
KABIR (indian saint)
AND ALL ENLIGHTENMET MASTERS
on 07 Sep 2010 at 3:31 am # cusa
Where is Gauß?
on 07 Sep 2010 at 3:42 am # cusa
And, Immanuel Kant was not Russian, he was Prussian.
on 16 Sep 2010 at 10:34 pm # the K.A.P
Why top up ya list with whites, are u saying negroes have no influential men, what about imoteph (the first named Arch.), Hannibal (world’s great warrior who defeated roman empire) H. Macaulay, Mandela among others. Da list is not educative, xry 4 dat word. Try to renew ur list
on 15 Dec 2010 at 5:14 pm # Corinne Nelsen
I think we can all agree it would take a much longer list to name every genius or great intelligence in our world’s history. Just because someone is not on this particular list does not mean they are less intelligent than the individuals here.
That being said I would like to submit Ayn Rand as one of the greatest minds of our time.
on 25 Dec 2010 at 6:30 pm # Angela
You ought to include names like James Watt , who made significant impact in revolutionalizing the misteries behind DNA. Top on the list should be The wright Brothers, Philip Emeagwali, Ukemenam Angela …………
on 01 Jan 2011 at 11:35 am # baghlani
Faithfuully I think the most brilliant mind in all over the world & in all along the history is certainly karl friedrich gauss.Please rearange the above mentioned list accordingly.
on 04 Jan 2011 at 8:58 am # PLB
It’s sad to say that all modern thought/mathematics/philosophy came from the Egyptian and or Nubian cultue and that there isn’t any credit given. But white man has always done that. Wow. Sad and predictible.
on 16 Jan 2011 at 9:33 am # a
WHERE ON EARTH IS KARL FREDRICH GAUSS!!!!!!!!!! AND WHY THE HELL IS NAPOLEAN A HITLER SHAPED MANIAC ON THIS LIST OF GENIUSES??? IS THIS A CHILD PRODIHY LIST OR A GENIUS ONE ? IS THIS A GENIUS LIST OR A LIST OF RANDOM un(in)famous maniacs????????????? whhere is kim ung yong
on 26 Jan 2011 at 2:57 am # Name
Here is my top 5 list that i reccommend.
1.GAUSS
2.EULER
3.ERDOS
4.NEWTON
5.MAXWELL
mostly math and physiscs and people but that’s what i think takes the most genius.
and also i don’t think that these people should be called geniuses since the definition of a genius is VAUGE and all humans are pretty dumb.
on 26 Jan 2011 at 6:06 am # impersonator
I don’t think any of our modern day geniuses hshould have any chance to be on the top 10. maybe Torrence Tao. especailly steven hawkins has contributed little usefulness or proved anything impossinle for the world.
on 27 Jan 2011 at 12:12 am # Gauss
I don’t think einstein should be considerd the greatest genius of all time!!!! I think i have done much more than an d is much smarter than eulre and niudun combbin ed!!!!!!!
on 29 Jan 2011 at 4:54 am # Yeknomo
First off the list is very good it shows many geniuses but as always the order is debatable. The reason for the lack of women and African Americans is because for the majority of time they weren’t taken seriously in the workforce. In the US women and African Americans were discriminated against until the 20th century. I agree with Madam Currie being on the list though. secondly, people like Jesus and Mohammad and MLK Jr. shouldn’t be on the list because they were influential but not in science and math and thus are not geniuses. White men should dominate the list because until around 200years ago they ruled the world.
on 30 Jan 2011 at 9:02 am # THEGAME
I REALLY disagree with this list! WHERE is archemedis euclid and george bush!??? i think first place should definetly be oiler followed by kim ung yong! take out buffet and replace him with GATES. there both crazy rich peole but at lestt bill gatese is a nerd!
GAUSS????
on 03 Feb 2011 at 11:09 am # John
It makes sense that Einstein is 1st, but I would actually put Beethoven at one. But which is more impressive: figuring out that time is relative, or writing the greatest music in history while totally deaf?
on 06 Feb 2011 at 1:20 am # zzzp
IDIOS!!What a shame !!!: Alexander the Great ,Michel Angelo,Dostoyevsky
,Plato,Riemann,Gauss,Einstein
on 07 Feb 2011 at 12:36 pm # Amritesh
GOOD WORK!!! u should try making a new list reading all suggestions…try including john nash,madam curie and richard feynman..try including votes so many people can vote their top 50 and the list will be more relevant.
on 07 Feb 2011 at 8:35 pm # America
When you post a comment know your facts. Hannibal did not defeat the Roman Empire Carthage was defeated. He performed extremely well but in the end he lost. Definitely a brilliant perhaps the most brilliant general of all time but he still lost.
on 07 Feb 2011 at 8:37 pm # America
This list is somewhat biased but consider the American education system. It is largely based on European history therefore who appears on the list? White Males of course. People need to stop attacking the maker of the list he simply went by the people he/she could think of.
on 11 Feb 2011 at 7:12 pm # John Sanders
Iqbal Saleh Abba has the highest IQ tested in the world: so, the info here has to be latest and Chris Langdon is not the person. Why don’t you be accurate?
on 14 Feb 2011 at 5:30 am # Korey
Where is Bill Gates he is a huge part of the technological revolution.
on 26 Feb 2011 at 10:38 pm # Me
Tesla should be number 1. Da vinci is overrated.
on 18 Mar 2011 at 12:16 pm # David Koevoets
Tesla nr 1
or
Maxwell nr 1
No woman in the list, they should clean! :-p
on 22 Mar 2011 at 2:44 am # Bruz2r
Bach 2 the Future?
“25) Johann Sebastian Bach – Bach was an exceptional composer and organist… his music began early in the 19th century….”
on 22 Mar 2011 at 4:43 am # Zach
Speaking composers, I feel Brian Wilson should have made the list. His mind is so vast and so complicated, that the thoughts that go through his mind about music could be compared to those that went through Einstein’s concerning science. I can see why he didn’t amongst competition from composers like Mozart and Beethoven, but just a thought.
on 24 Mar 2011 at 5:46 pm # Dr guru
Good try.can b considerd as list of 50 geniuses instead of TOP.Read many suggessions to improve it
on 25 Mar 2011 at 9:21 am # whatthe
Tesla is the greatest by far!
on 29 Mar 2011 at 7:48 am # john
i agree einstein is number 1, but newton suppose to be number 2 or 3.. he have more contribution than tesla..
on 01 Apr 2011 at 1:36 am # lia
ilias,tathiana ,mimi -you nailed it!!! that’s what i’m asking myself? where the hell are the w0men, hippocrates,HOMER and especially KARL MARX!!!!!!!!!!!!!
on 08 Apr 2011 at 1:56 pm # Steve
AQUINAS…. AUGUSTINE… John Paul II…
You had Fr. Martin Luther but not his wife the ex-nun? If you wanted to pick a Protestant “Reformer” Zwingli or Calvin would have been better choices
on 02 May 2011 at 12:21 pm # platomk
notable missing
pythagoras mathematician
hero of alexandria – greatest inventor of all time
over rated.
leonardo – hardly ever finshed anything. notes and drawings that werte never made or published so had no influence. as all in the renaissance these figures rediscovered the greek ideas, never equalling them as Michaeangelo cried when he saw the sculpture Lacoon because as he put it he could never equal its magnigicance and told the pope he and no one else could ever reach the perfection of the greek artists almost 2000 years before.
science and its discipline was almost single handedly created by Aristotle. what he achieved was profound. ever one since has merely “stood on the shoulders fo giants and can see a little further” but could not see anything without the mental giants that proceeded them. whitehead said that all western philosophy is a footnote to Plato and many agree with him. Plato and socrates should top this list as without them the others dont exist.
archimedes revolutionsed war, catapults, bows so ahead of his time and the world that he kept Rome at bay from ravaging his city SYracuse for 50 years. all real world all working machines that changed the world as we know it. to put leonardo ahead of him is just .. well silly.
Euclids book on mathematics has been the text book for mathematics for most of the world for 2000 years with no changes or additions till the late 1920′s when new ideas were added. none of the other mathematics was changed or altered as it was all but perfection.
heros steam engine, hsi “car”, coin operated vending machines, nuematic doors, pipe organs and the list goes on..
Galens work in anatomy is still studied by Surgeons today. Hypocrates changed the myths and gods out of healing and paved the way for modern medicine.
phythogoras work in mathematics changed it from mere rules of thumb to become the language of science. somthing that today is regarded as possibly mans greatest achievement. and its attibuted to him. sciencists and physicians today owe a debt of grattitude to him.
aristotle work in all fields of knowledge has never been equelled and profound. he basically IS science. regarded to this day as knowing more than any human who has ever lived.
alexander never lost and gennerals today still study him and his plans, Shwartzcoff has stated that certain monueveures in Iraq were based on his tactics in India. Caesar wept as he was was just starting as a commander and at the same age Alexander had conquered the world.
Homers Illiad and the Odyssey are still influencing storytelling and the movies you watch today.
Platos writings changed the world, influencing drastically the christian world and theology, the middle east, creator fo the first university.
the list should have at the top about 20 greeks and then everyone else listed and which greek influenced their ideas.. but hey perhaps im biased but then again I got this from reading it form EInstein, Betrand Russell, Voltaire, THomas Aquinus, and a thousand others including msot fo the people on your list who said the same.
on 06 May 2011 at 5:04 am # Steven
Albert Einstein should be high on the list, but not number 1. He benefited from a lot work developed before him. Riemann was trying to develop a gravitational theory with curved space, which Einstein realized he should have been looking at space-time not space. Also, with Maxwell’s work Einstein would not have developed special relativity. Einstein great genius, but not greatest.
I would definitely put Newton above Einstein. He developed physics and calculus, during a time when most people during his time were still burning witches and thought plagues was punishment from God. When Newton didn’t have the mathematics required to his work in physics, HE INVENTED CALCULUS TO DO IT!
But, for the greatest genius ever, I would have to go with Archimedes. Archimedes was probably the greatest mathematician that has ever lived. His work was still being studied and deciphered by mathematicians over 1000 years after he was dead. At the time of his death, Archimedes was working on Limits and started developing Calculus. Let me repeat that, he was developing Calculus over 1500 years before Newton invented it. But, he was killed by Roman soldiers before he could complete it. If he had not been killed, physics and science would probably be ridiculously more advanced than it is today, because once you have Calculus (deals with things like rates of change) Newtonian Physics will soon start to poor out of it.
Archimedes did all of this when very little mathematical notation had been developed and pretty much only well known math was Euclid’s geometry. Archimedes was so far a head of his time that no one during his time could even understand what the hell he was doing. Only Newton seems the only one that has a chance to compare to this kind of genius.
on 11 May 2011 at 12:06 am # HIStory vetted
Tesla @ the top and argue about the other 49.
“He who seeks shall find”. If one cares to look.
@ Yekenomo – I DO agree with you about why Jesus, Mohammed and MLK Jr. should be excluded, but why prove your ignorance of black geniuses? True ingenuity and intelligence can’t be discriminated against.
But when I saw Sammel Jackson on the list, for a second there I thought….aw, never mind. :)
The names are for everyone. Their “serious” accomplishments are for Nomo!
Mark E. Dean
Do you know why you can Plug and Play any printer, keyboard, monitor or peripheral without programing your computer to work with it every time? Because of the ISA bus. Mark Dean was the computer scientist who led the team that developed the ISA bus, and he led the design team responsible for creating the first one-gigahertz computer processor chip too. He also contributed to the design of IBM’s first personal computer, holding three of the nine core patents upon which these machines were based. He holds some 25 patents with at least 10 more pending and has been honored with numerous awards including election to the National Academy of Engineers, membership in the American Academy of Arts and Science and being awarded with the Ronald H. Brown American Innovators Award. He’s an “IBM Fellow” (only 231 since 1962) which is the highest level of technical excellence at the company, and has held a variety of posts at IBM, including Vice President of Performance for the RS/6000 division; Director of the Austin Research Research Lab; and, as of 2004, Vice President of the IBM Almaden Research Center in San Jose, Calif., where he has lead the effort to develop tablet-style PCs. In 1997 he was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.
James West
He studied physics at Temple U. Specializing in microphones, West went on to author 200 patents and more than 60 technical and scientific publications. In 1962, with Gerhard Sessler, West developed the foil electret microphone, which became the industry standard. Approximately 90% of microphones in use today are based on this invention and almost all telephones utilize it, as well as tape recorders, camcorders, baby monitors and hearing aids. In 1999, West and Sessler were inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame for their invention of the “Electroacoustic Transducer/Electret Microphone”. West left Bell Labs in 2001 as a retired Distinguished Member of Technical Staff and Bell Labs Fellow. His numerous distinctions include Fellowship in the IEEE and membership in the National Academy of Engineering, National Patent Law Association, the Electrochemical Society of America, the Acoustical Society of America and the National Society of Black Engineers. In 1997, he was named president-elect of the Acoustical Society of America (ASA).
West has more than 40 U.S. and over 100 foreign patents and has authored or contributed to more than 100 technical papers and several books on acoustics, solid-state physics and materials science. He is especially active in programs designed to inspire minorities and women to enter fields in science, technology and engineering. As of 2003, he has served as a research professor at the Whiting School of Engineering at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. He was named Divisional Diversity Council of the Whiting School in the fall of that year.
Benjamin Banneker (1731-1806)
An internationally known almanac author, farmer, engineer, surveyor, city planner, astronomer, mathematician, inventor, author, and social critic. He taught himself advanced mathematics and astronomy. He is best known for successfully predicting an eclipse in 1789. His estimate made well in advance of the celestial event, contradicted predictions of better-known mathematicians and astronomers. From 1792 to 1802, Banneker published an annual Farmer’s Almanac based on his astronomical calculations. In 1753, when he was 22, using a pocket watch he had borrowed for a model, Banneker carved wooden replicas of each piece and used the parts to make the first striking clock to be made completely in America. Banneker’s clock was so precise it struck every hour, on the hour, for forty years. Banneker even helped Joseph Ellicott to build a complex clock.
Banneker became close friends with the Ellicott brothers. They lent him books on astronomy and mathematics as well as instruments for observing the stars. Banneker taught himself astronomy and advanced mathematics.
Banneker’s parents died, leaving him the farm since his two sisters had married and moved away. Banneker built a “work cabin” with a skylight to study the stars and make calculations. Working largely alone, with few visitors, he compiled results which he published in his Almanac.
Around this time, Major Andrew Ellicott, George Ellicott’s cousin, asked Banneker to help him survey the “Federal Territory”. Banneker and Ellicott worked closely with Pierre L’Enfant who was the architect in charge of planning Washington D.C. L’Enfant was suddenly dismissed from the project, due to his temper. When he left, he took the plans with him. Banneker recreated the plans from memory, saving the U.S. government the effort and expense of having someone else design the capital.
Daniel Hale Williams (1856-1931)
Performed the first SUCCESSFUL surgery on the heart in the 1800′s and his procedure was used as the standard for future internal surgeries because EVERY patient operated on prior to that (by white doctors, Yekenomo) died of infection.
Charles Henry Turner 1867-1923
Insects out number humans about 200 million to one, have 6-10mil different species and represent more than half of all known living organisms, so a major breakthrough in their study would be pretty significant, right?
This zoologist became the first person to prove that insects can hear and can distinguish pitch. In addition, he first discovered that cockroaches can learn by trial and error (those funny maze tests of his we still do) and that honeybees can see color. So, Yeknomo, white scientists actually thought insects didn’t hear, learn or see in color. Nkaay?
@ America (No excuse for missing this next one!)
George Washington? No. George Washington CARVER? Hells yeah!
Born into slavery (Ok, that means educating yourself or your children is VERY likely to be punishable by death), after AGRICULTURAL CHEMIST, George Washington CARVER, became Tuskegee Institute’s director of agricultural research in 1896, he devoted his time to research projects aimed at helping Southern agriculture, demonstrating ways that farmers could improve their economic situation. He conducted experiments in soil management and crop production and directed an experimental farm. At this time agriculture in the Deep South was in serious trouble because the unremitting single-crop cultivation of cotton had left the soil of many fields exhausted and WORTHLESS, and erosion had then taken its toll on areas that could no longer sustain any plant cover. As a remedy, Carver urged Southern farmers to plant peanuts and soybeans, which, since they belong to the legume family, could restore nitrogen to the soil while also providing the protein so badly needed in the diet of many Southerners. Carver found that Alabama’s soils were particularly well-suited to growing peanuts and sweet potatoes,
but when the state’s farmers began cultivating these crops instead of cotton, they found little demand for them on the market.
(and here’s the genius part IMHO, on a scientific AND socio-economic scale.)
In response to this problem, Carver set about enlarging the commercial possibilities of the peanut and sweet potato through a long and ingenious program of laboratory research. He ultimately developed 300 derivative products from peanuts—among them cheese, milk, coffee, flour, ink, dyes, plastics, wood stains, soap, linoleum, medicinal oils, and cosmetics—and 118 from sweet potatoes, including flour, vinegar, molasses, rubber, ink, a synthetic rubber, and postage stamp glue.
So those are my additions. Good enough?
And I don’t think George Washington, Napoleon, or Hannibal for that matter should be included solely because that’s just military planning. A big ol chess game. You just need to be 5% smarter than your enemy. Strategic military geniuses? Definitely. But to use one’s intellect to AVOID war and death, now THAT is genius.
on 11 May 2011 at 12:15 am # HIStory vetted
But everyone on the list was a great in their own way and reading about their lives and work would be nothing but beneficial. Good luck in your travels people. Mentally AND physically!
on 11 May 2011 at 6:48 pm # heyman231000
Great list, but I am disappointed that you left out Levi Boxell, a native of Zionsville, IN. At the age of 17, he has already contributed greatly to the string theory studies, and is currently poised to accept a job offer from NASA that would instantly place him in the upper-echelon of the most powerful scientific minds in the world. President Obama recently requested that Levi contribute to the war on terror in Afghanistan by helping the US intelligence develop new weapons, but Levi politely declined the offer due to his humanitarian interests. A great mind, but an even better person.
on 12 May 2011 at 3:54 pm # peter
All such lists tend to make people mad because of whom they leave out. I am happy to see Warren Buffett included, because he has succeeded by means of an approach that is very systematic and mathematical but blended with a great deal of ‘horse sense.’ Also, he has made so many good investments that there’s no way luck can account for it. Finally, I think he is one of our great economic thinkers. Read his letters to Berkshire shareholders for many nuggets of logical thinking about economic principles which economists get wrong.
I am surprised at the high placing of Tesla. When I was a kid nobody mentioned his name in the company of Newton and Einstein. I wonder what is behind the Tesla surge? Did they make a movie about him or something?
You left out most of the great mathematicians: Gauss, Euler, Riemann, Galois are a few. Was Bach on the list?
Actually, the problem is that there is a difference between brain power, on one hand, intellectual achievement, on the other, and fame, on the third hand, supposing the reader to have three hands …
on 20 May 2011 at 3:50 pm # buch
where are the Wright Brothers,without whom there would be no air travels ,Space,aviation or even airforce wing of the millitary or have you forgotten?
on 20 May 2011 at 3:57 pm # buch
Where are the women? Are there no women geniuses?
Here’s my try at a list, in no particular order:
Marie Curie
Sor Juana Inez de la Cruz
Elizabeth I
Jane Addams
Lady Murasaki
Jane Austen
Charlotte Brontë
Joni Mitchell
Toni Morrison
Golda Meir
on 21 Feb 2009 at 5:34 pm # eq
I agree with you on CURIE alone,others are just not geniuses,there are women,this not democracy remember?
on 20 May 2011 at 7:32 pm # Andrew
Rudolf Steiner is missing in action here.
Biodynamics, eurythmy, Steiner education,Weleda architecture, etc etc. 100 years ago he said the bees would be in trouble about now, so his genius transcends time. He has lectures across a huge range of subject areas, the relevance of many we are only just now beginning to be understood. Some one hit wonders in this list.
on 31 May 2011 at 9:23 am # Gibbs
Gibbs shudve been there, “the first chemical engineer!”
on 01 Jun 2011 at 2:53 pm # Lee Paxton
List is not accurate, for example, Buffett, who would not rate a slot on this list, nor would Langan or Washington. Where’s Werner Heisenbert, Max Planck, or Frege? There’s lots of books explaining genius and cultural contributions, something even more important. Should do your homework! One thing for sure, more genius has been concentrated in Europe than any other place; America is way down the line, whereas, Germany would lead.
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Sunday, September 11, 2011
Saturday, September 10, 2011
INVENTION OF THE TYPEWRITER
The invention of the modern computer keyboard began with the invention of the typewriter. Christopher Latham Sholes patented the typewriter that we commonly use today in 1868. The Remington Company mass marketed the first typewriters starting in 1877.
Inventions Leading to the Computer Keyboard
A few key technological developments created the transition of the typewriter into the computer keyboard. The teletype machine, introduced in the 1930s, combined the technology of the typewriter (used as an input and a printing device) with the telegraph. Elsewhere, punched card systems were combined with typewriters to create what was called keypunches. Keypunches were the basis of early adding machines and IBM was selling over one million dollars worth of adding machines in 1931.
Early computer keyboards were first adapted from the punch card and teletype technologies. In 1946, the Eniac computer used a punched card reader as its input and output device. In 1948, the Binac computer used an electromechanically controlled typewriter to both input data directly onto magnetic tape (for feeding the computer data) and to print results. The emerging electric typewriter further improved the technological marriage between the typewriter and the computer.
Video Display Terminals
By 1964, MIT, Bell Laboratories and General Electric had collaborated to create a computer system called Multics; a time sharing, multi-user system. Multics encouraged the development of a new user interface, the video display terminal. The video display terminals (VDT) combined the technology of the cathode ray tube used in televisions and electric typewriters. Computer users could now see what text they were typing on their display screens making text easier to create, edit and delete, and computers easier to program and use.
Computer Keyboards Send Direct Electronic Impulses
Earlier computer keyboards had been based either on teletype machines or keypunches. There were many electromechanical steps in transmitting data between the keyboard and the computer that slowed things down. With VDT technology and electric keyboards, the keyboard's keys could now send electronic impulses directly to the computer and save time. By the late ‘70s and early ‘80s, all computers used electronic keyboards and VDTs. Nevertheless, the layout of the computer keyboard still owes its origin to the inventor of the first typewriter, Christopher Latham Sholes who also invented the QWERTY layout. However, the computer keyboard does have a few extra function keys.
Continue > History of Computer Peripherals
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Inventions Leading to the Computer Keyboard
A few key technological developments created the transition of the typewriter into the computer keyboard. The teletype machine, introduced in the 1930s, combined the technology of the typewriter (used as an input and a printing device) with the telegraph. Elsewhere, punched card systems were combined with typewriters to create what was called keypunches. Keypunches were the basis of early adding machines and IBM was selling over one million dollars worth of adding machines in 1931.
Early computer keyboards were first adapted from the punch card and teletype technologies. In 1946, the Eniac computer used a punched card reader as its input and output device. In 1948, the Binac computer used an electromechanically controlled typewriter to both input data directly onto magnetic tape (for feeding the computer data) and to print results. The emerging electric typewriter further improved the technological marriage between the typewriter and the computer.
Video Display Terminals
By 1964, MIT, Bell Laboratories and General Electric had collaborated to create a computer system called Multics; a time sharing, multi-user system. Multics encouraged the development of a new user interface, the video display terminal. The video display terminals (VDT) combined the technology of the cathode ray tube used in televisions and electric typewriters. Computer users could now see what text they were typing on their display screens making text easier to create, edit and delete, and computers easier to program and use.
Computer Keyboards Send Direct Electronic Impulses
Earlier computer keyboards had been based either on teletype machines or keypunches. There were many electromechanical steps in transmitting data between the keyboard and the computer that slowed things down. With VDT technology and electric keyboards, the keyboard's keys could now send electronic impulses directly to the computer and save time. By the late ‘70s and early ‘80s, all computers used electronic keyboards and VDTs. Nevertheless, the layout of the computer keyboard still owes its origin to the inventor of the first typewriter, Christopher Latham Sholes who also invented the QWERTY layout. However, the computer keyboard does have a few extra function keys.
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Thursday, September 8, 2011
INVENTIONS THAAT CHANGED THE WORLD
Tim Berners-Lee, creator of the World Wide Web
Briton Tim Berners-Lee did not invent the Internet itself. When he published his innovations, the network has existed for several decades. What Tim did was to invent the URI, URL, HTTP, HTML protocols. In fact, Internet-based hyperlinks to documents and links between sites - it's all work of Berners-Lee invention. The first introduction was made back in 1989 when was working for the Swiss European Organization for Nuclear Research CERN. And from 1991 to 1993 they were released the first specification URI, HTTP and HTML.
Tim was offered the title of knight in Britain. His WWW discovery is so important for society that we simply could not leave him out of this list.
Robert Platt, the inventor of the - Suitcase with wheels
Robert Platt was an ordinary pilot. Everything changed one day when was walking toward the aircraft with a sufficiently heavy luggage. Plat simply picked the luggage up and screwed wheels on the suitcase. His colleagues liked the idea so much, that soon,Robert founded his own company TravelPro, engaged in production of suitcases with wheels.
Perhaps every person who had at least once traveled by plane, failed to appreciate the benefits of such a suitcase, which allows to carry much more luggage with less effort. In 1992 kompani TravelPro was rated Inc 500.
Hind Miller and Lisa Lindahl, the inventors of sports bras
In Vermont the the two friends puzzled with one major problem - the lack of sportswear for women. Well of course, not a complete absence, but the apparent scarcity of supply.
Then, sometime in the course of joint work the girls came to the famous all day sports bra. Eventually, this small business Miller and Lindahl was sold to Sara Lee.
Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce, the inventors of - intergrated circuits (computer chips)
Kilby and Noyce are the creators of computer chips. For this invention in 1958 (when he worked for the company Texas Instruments as an engineer ) Jack Kilby won the Nobel Prize in 2000. Robert Noyce's history is quite interesting too, because he eventually founded two prominent companies - Fairchild Semiconductor and Intel. In essence, the creation of these two men has changed our world by giving mankind an era of personal computers. Without their invention, world would have been a hell of a place.
Bob Frankston and Dan Bricklin, the inventors of the spreadsheet
Let's put it simply. The brainchild of Frankston can not compete with such today's giants like Microsoft. But, first, their program for quite a long time was the standard in the industry, and made them a hell of a lot of money. And second, it marked the beginning of a whole class of programs that we know today as spreadsheets (eg. Excel)
Melitta Bentz, inventor of the coffee filter
If you're one out of the millions of people out there, who needs a good, warm and flavored cup of coffee every morning you should thank the German housewife Melitta Bentz. She was the lady who invented the coffee filter. Melitta patented her idea back in 1908. Since then, the former housekeeper has become a real entrepreneur, and people around the world were able to calmly drink coffee, enjoying it's taste and not worrying about coffee grains.
Alfred Fielding and Marc Chavannes, inventors of the air bubble film
We all love air-bubble films (still call it an air film, bubble film). It was invented back in 1957 by Alfred Fielding and Marc Chavannes. They were also working on the mechanism for the painless removal of wallpaper, and eventually got a great package for storage of fragile products. A few years after the discovery, partners founded the company Sealed Air Corporation in New Jersey. Today, annual revenues excess 5 billion $.
Briton Tim Berners-Lee did not invent the Internet itself. When he published his innovations, the network has existed for several decades. What Tim did was to invent the URI, URL, HTTP, HTML protocols. In fact, Internet-based hyperlinks to documents and links between sites - it's all work of Berners-Lee invention. The first introduction was made back in 1989 when was working for the Swiss European Organization for Nuclear Research CERN. And from 1991 to 1993 they were released the first specification URI, HTTP and HTML.
Tim was offered the title of knight in Britain. His WWW discovery is so important for society that we simply could not leave him out of this list.
Robert Platt, the inventor of the - Suitcase with wheels
Robert Platt was an ordinary pilot. Everything changed one day when was walking toward the aircraft with a sufficiently heavy luggage. Plat simply picked the luggage up and screwed wheels on the suitcase. His colleagues liked the idea so much, that soon,Robert founded his own company TravelPro, engaged in production of suitcases with wheels.
Perhaps every person who had at least once traveled by plane, failed to appreciate the benefits of such a suitcase, which allows to carry much more luggage with less effort. In 1992 kompani TravelPro was rated Inc 500.
Hind Miller and Lisa Lindahl, the inventors of sports bras
In Vermont the the two friends puzzled with one major problem - the lack of sportswear for women. Well of course, not a complete absence, but the apparent scarcity of supply.
Then, sometime in the course of joint work the girls came to the famous all day sports bra. Eventually, this small business Miller and Lindahl was sold to Sara Lee.
Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce, the inventors of - intergrated circuits (computer chips)
Kilby and Noyce are the creators of computer chips. For this invention in 1958 (when he worked for the company Texas Instruments as an engineer ) Jack Kilby won the Nobel Prize in 2000. Robert Noyce's history is quite interesting too, because he eventually founded two prominent companies - Fairchild Semiconductor and Intel. In essence, the creation of these two men has changed our world by giving mankind an era of personal computers. Without their invention, world would have been a hell of a place.
Bob Frankston and Dan Bricklin, the inventors of the spreadsheet
Let's put it simply. The brainchild of Frankston can not compete with such today's giants like Microsoft. But, first, their program for quite a long time was the standard in the industry, and made them a hell of a lot of money. And second, it marked the beginning of a whole class of programs that we know today as spreadsheets (eg. Excel)
Melitta Bentz, inventor of the coffee filter
If you're one out of the millions of people out there, who needs a good, warm and flavored cup of coffee every morning you should thank the German housewife Melitta Bentz. She was the lady who invented the coffee filter. Melitta patented her idea back in 1908. Since then, the former housekeeper has become a real entrepreneur, and people around the world were able to calmly drink coffee, enjoying it's taste and not worrying about coffee grains.
Alfred Fielding and Marc Chavannes, inventors of the air bubble film
We all love air-bubble films (still call it an air film, bubble film). It was invented back in 1957 by Alfred Fielding and Marc Chavannes. They were also working on the mechanism for the painless removal of wallpaper, and eventually got a great package for storage of fragile products. A few years after the discovery, partners founded the company Sealed Air Corporation in New Jersey. Today, annual revenues excess 5 billion $.
Wednesday, September 7, 2011
DISCOVERY OF SUBMARINE
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Submarine (disambiguation).
A Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force Oyashio-class submarine in 2006
A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation below the surface of the water. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability. The term submarine most commonly refers to a large crewed autonomous vessel; however, historically or colloquially, submarine can also refer to medium sized or smaller vessels (midget submarines, wet subs), remotely operated vehicles or robots.
The word submarine was originally an adjective meaning "under the sea"; consequently other uses such as "submarine engineering" or "submarine cable" may not actually refer at all to the vessel. Submarine was in fact shortened from the proper term, "submarine boat", and is often further shortened to "sub" when the word is employed informally. Submarines should always be referred to as "boats" rather than as "ships", regardless of their size. The English term U-boat for a German submarine comes from the German word for submarine, U-Boot, itself an abbreviation for Unterseeboot ("undersea boat").
Although experimental submarines had been built before, submarine design took off during the 19th century, and they were adopted by several different navies. Submarines were first widely used during World War I (1914–1918) and now feature in many large navies. Military usage includes attacking enemy surface ships or submarines, aircraft carrier protection, blockade running, ballistic missile submarines as part of a nuclear strike force, reconnaissance, conventional land attack (for example using a cruise missile), and covert insertion of special forces. Civilian uses for submarines include marine science, salvage, exploration and facility inspection/maintenance. Submarines can also be modified to perform more specialized functions such as search-and-rescue missions or undersea cable repair. Submarines are also used in tourism, and for undersea archaeology.
Most large submarines comprise a cylindrical body with hemispherical (and/or conical) ends and a vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices as well as periscopes. In modern submarines this structure is the "sail" in American usage, and "fin" in European usage. A "conning tower" was a feature of earlier designs: a separate pressure hull above the main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes. There is a propeller (or pump jet) at the rear and various hydrodynamic control fins as well as ballast tanks. Smaller, deep diving and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional layout.
Submarines have one of the largest ranges of capabilities in any vessel, ranging from small autonomous examples to one- or two-person vessels operating for a few hours, to vessels which can remain submerged for 6 months such as the Russian Typhoon class - the biggest submarines ever built and in use. Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or practical for human divers. Modern deep diving submarines are derived from the bathyscaphe, which in turn was an evolution of the diving bell.
Contents [hide]
1 History of submarines
1.1 Early history of submarines and the first submersibles
1.2 First military submarines
1.2.1 Submarines in the American Civil War
1.3 Mechanically powered submarines, late 19th century
1.4 End of the 19th century to the Russo-Japanese War
1.5 Submarines during the Russo-Japanese War
1.6 Submarines during World War I
1.7 Interwar developments
1.8 Submarines during World War II
1.8.1 Germany
1.8.2 Japan
1.8.3 United States
1.8.4 United Kingdom
1.8.5 Snorkel
1.9 Modern military submarines
1.10 Polar operations
2 Military usage
3 Civil usage
4 Technology
4.1 Submersion and trimming
4.2 Submarine hull
4.2.1 Overview
4.2.2 Single/double hull
4.2.3 Pressure hull
4.3 Propulsion
4.3.1 Electric transmission
4.3.1.1 Diesel-electric
4.3.2 Air-independent propulsion
4.3.3 Nuclear power
4.3.4 Alternative propulsion
4.4 Armament
4.5 Sensors
4.6 Navigation
4.7 Communication
5 Crew
5.1 Women as part of crew
6 Life support systems
7 See also
7.1 Related topics
7.2 Articles on specific vessels
7.3 Articles on specific submarine classes
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 External links
[edit]History of submarines
Main article: History of submarines
[edit]Early history of submarines and the first submersibles
The Drebbel, the first navigable submarine
The first submersible with reliable information on its construction was built in 1620 by Cornelius Jacobszoon Drebbel, a Dutchman in the service of James I of England. It was created to the standards of the design outlined by English mathematician William Bourne. It was propelled by means of oars. The precise nature of the submarine type is a matter of some controversy; some claim that it was merely a bell towed by a boat. Two improved types were tested in the Thames between 1620 and 1624. In 2002 a two-person version of Bourne's design was built for the BBC TV programme Building the Impossible by Mark Edwards, and successfully rowed under water at Dorney Lake, Eton.
Though the first submersible vehicles were tools for exploring under water, it did not take long for inventors to recognize their military potential. The strategic advantages of submarines were set out by Bishop John Wilkins of Chester, England, in Mathematicall Magick in 1648:
Tis private: a man may thus go to any coast in the world invisibly, without discovery or prevented in his journey.
Tis safe, from the uncertainty of Tides, and the violence of Tempests, which do never move the sea above five or six paces deep. From Pirates and Robbers which do so infest other voyages; from ice and great frost, which do so much endanger the passages towards the Poles.
It may be of great advantages against a Navy of enemies, who by this may be undermined in the water and blown up.
It may be of special use for the relief of any place besieged by water, to convey unto them invisible supplies; and so likewise for the surprisal of any place that is accessible by water.
It may be of unspeakable benefit for submarine experiments.
A replica of the Turtle on display at the Royal Navy Submarine Museum, Gosport
[edit]First military submarines
The first military submarine was Turtle (1775), a hand-powered acorn-shaped device designed by the American David Bushnell to accommodate a single person. It was the first verified submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion. During the American Revolutionary War, Turtle (operated by Sgt. Ezra Lee, Continental Army) tried and failed to sink the British warship HMS Eagle, flagship of the blockaders in New York harbor on September 7, 1776.[1]
The Nautilus (1800)
In 1800, France built a human-powered submarine designed by American Robert Fulton, the Nautilus. The French eventually gave up on the experiment in 1804, as did the British when they later considered Fulton's submarine design.
During the War of 1812, in 1814, Silas Halsey lost his life while using a submarine in an unsuccessful attack on a British warship stationed in New London harbor.
The Submarino Hipopótamo was the first submarine in South America built and tested in Ecuador on September 18, 1837. It was designed by Jose Rodriguez Lavandera, who successfully crossed the Guayas River in Guayaquil accompanied by Jose Quevedo. Rodriguez Lavandera had enrolled in the Ecuadorian Navy in 1823, becoming a Lieutenant by 1830. The Hipopotamo crossed the Guayas on two more occasions, but it was then abandoned because of lack of funding and interest from the government. Today, few engravings[2] and a scale model of the original design is preserved by the Maritime Museum of the Ecuadorian Navy.[3]
In 1851, a Bavarian artillery corporal, Wilhelm Bauer, took a submarine designed by him called the Brandtaucher (incendiary-diver), which sank on its first test dive in Kiel Harbour—but its three crewmen managed to escape, after flooding the vessel, which allowed the inside pressure to equalize.[4] This submarine was built by August Howaldt and powered by a treadwheel. The submarine was re-discovered during a dredging operation 1887, and was raised sixteen years later. The vessel is on display in a museum in Dresden.
The submarine Flach was commissioned in 1865 by the Chilean government during the war of Chile and Peru against Spain (1864–1866). It was built by the German engineer Karl Flach. The submarine sank during tests in Valparaiso bay on May 3, 1866, with the entire eleven-man crew.
[edit]Submarines in the American Civil War
The 1862 Alligator, first submarine of the US Navy, was developed in conjunction with the French
During the American Civil War, the Union was the first to field a submarine. The French-designed Alligator was the first U.S. Navy sub and the first to feature compressed air (for air supply) and an air filtration system. Initially hand-powered by oars, it was converted after 6 months to a screw propeller powered by a hand crank. With a crew of 20, it was larger than Confederate submarines. Alligator was 47 feet (14.3 m) long and about 4 feet (1.2 m) in diameter. It was lost in a storm off Cape Hatteras on April 1, 1863 with no crew and under tow to its first combat deployment at Charleston.[5]
The Confederate States of America fielded several human-powered submarines. The first Confederate submarine was the 30-foot (9 m) long Pioneer which sank a target schooner using a towed mine during tests on Lake Pontchartrain, but was not used in combat. It was scuttled after New Orleans was captured and in 1868 was raised and sold for scrap. The Bayou St. John Confederate Submarine was also scuttled without seeing combat, and is now on display at the Louisiana State Museum.
Confederate H.L. Hunley
The Confederate submarine H. L. Hunley (named for one of its financiers, Horace Lawson Hunley) was intended for attacking the North's ships, which were blockading the South's seaports. The submarine had a long pole with an explosive charge in the bow, called a spar torpedo. The sub had to approach an enemy vessel, attach an explosive, move away, and then detonate it. The sub was extremely hazardous to operate, and had no air supply other than what was contained inside the main compartment. On two occasions, the sub sank. On the first occasion half the crew died during an experimental voyage. On the second occasion, February 17, 1864, the salvaged and renovated vessel, now named CSS Hunley, sank the USS Housatonic off Charleston Harbor. Soon after signaling its success the submarine sank due to unknown cause; the entire eight-man crew (including Hunley himself) drowned. Submarines did not have a major impact on the outcome of the war, but did portend their future importance to, and increased interest in their use in, naval warfare. The location of Hunley was unknown until it was officially found in 1995,[6] and was then recovered in 2000. The sinking of the USS Housatonic by CSS Hunley was the first successful submarine attack on a warship.[7]
[edit]Mechanically powered submarines, late 19th century
Plongeur
The first submarine not relying on human power for propulsion was the French Plongeur (meaning diver), launched in 1863, and using compressed air at 180 psi (1241 kPa).[8]
The first combustion-powered submarine was Ictineo II, designed in Spain by NarcÃs Monturiol. Originally launched in 1864 as human-powered, propelled by 16,[8] it was converted to peroxide propulsion and steam in 1867. The 14 meter (46 ft) craft was designed for a crew of two, could dive to 30 metres (96 ft), and demonstrated dives of two hours. On the surface it ran on a steam engine, but underwater such an engine would quickly consume the submarine's oxygen; so Monturiol invented an air-independent propulsion system. While the air-independent power system drove the screw, the chemical process driving it also released oxygen into the hull for the crew and an auxiliary steam engine. Monturiol's fully functional, double hulled vessels also solved pressure and buoyancy control problems that had bedeviled earlier designs.
Replica of Ictineo II, Barcelona
In 1870, the French writer Jules Verne, inspired by the recent efforts of Monturiol and of his own navy, published the science fiction classic 20,000 Leagues under the Sea, which concerns the adventures of a maverick inventor of the Nautilus, a submarine more advanced than any at the time. An international success, the story encouraged inventors around the world to work towards making such a vehicle a reality.
Design of the Peruvian Toro, the first fully functional submarine built in Latin America.
In 1879, the Peruvian government, during the War of the Pacific, commissioned and built the fully operational submarine Toro Submarino. It never saw military action before being scuttled by the Peruvians after their defeat in the war to prevent its capture by the Chileans.
The first submarine to be mass-produced was human-powered. It was the submarine of the Polish inventor Stefan Drzewiecki—50 units were built in 1881 for the Russian government. In 1884 the same inventor built an electric-powered submarine.
The Nordenfelt-designed, Ottoman submarine Abdülhamid
Discussions between the English clergyman and inventor George Garrett and the industrially and commercially adept Swede Thorsten Nordenfelt led to a series of steam-powered submarines. The first was the Nordenfelt I, a 56 tonne, 19.5 metre (64 ft) vessel similar to Garret's ill-fated Resurgam (1879), with a range of 240 kilometres (150 mi, 130 nm), armed with a single torpedo, in 1885. Like Resurgam, Nordenfelt I operated on the surface by steam, then shut down its engine to dive. While submerged the submarine released pressure generated when the engine was running on the surface to provide propulsion for some distance underwater. Greece, fearful of the return of the Ottomans, purchased it. Nordenfelt then built Nordenfelt II (Abdülhamid) in 1886 and Nordenfelt III (Abdülmecid) in 1887, a pair of 30 metre (100 ft) submarines with twin torpedo tubes, for the Ottoman navy. Abdülhamid became the first submarine in history to fire a torpedo submerged.[9] Nordenfelt's efforts culminated in 1887 with Nordenfelt IV which had twin motors and twin torpedoes. It was sold to the Russians, but proved unstable, ran aground, and was scrapped.
Peral submarine hull, Cartagena
Two submarines, both launched in September 1888, marked the maturing of naval submarine technology.
One was the Peral Submarine, launched by the Spanish Navy. It had two torpedoes, new air systems, hull shape, propeller, and cruciform external controls anticipating much later designs. Peral was the first all-electrical powered submarine.[10] After two years of trials the project was scrapped by naval officialdom that cited concerns over the short range permitted by its batteries.
The other was the Gymnote, launched by the French Navy. Gymnote was also an electrically powered and fully functional military submarine. It completed over 2,000 successful dives using a 204-cell battery.[11] Although she was scrapped for her limited range her side hydroplanes became the standard for future submarine designs.
Many more designs were built at this time by various inventors, but submarines were not put into service by navies until 1900.
[edit]End of the 19th century to the Russo-Japanese War
The turn of the 20th century marked a pivotal time in the development of submarines, with a number of important technologies making their debut, as well as the widespread adoption and fielding of submarines by a number of nations. Diesel electric propulsion would become the dominant power system and equipment such as the periscope would become standardized. Large numbers of experiments were done by countries on effective tactics and weapons for submarines, all of which would culminate in them making a large impact on the coming World War I.
USS Plunger, launched in 1902
In 1896, the Irish-American inventor John Philip Holland designed submarines that, for the first time, made use of internal combustion engines on the surface and electric battery power submerged. Fenian Ram, in 1881, was world's first successful submarine.[citation needed] Holland VI was launched on May 17, 1897 at Navy Lt. Lewis Nixon's Crescent Shipyard of Elizabeth, New Jersey. On April 11, 1900 the United States Navy purchased the revolutionary Holland VI and renamed it USS Holland (SS-1), America's first commissioned submarine. (John P. Holland's company, the Holland Torpedo Boat Company/Electric Boat Company became General Dynamics' Cold War progeny and is arguably the builder of the world's most technologically advanced submarines today).
Commissioned in June 1900, the French steam and electric Narval introduced the classic double-hull design, with a pressure hull inside the outer shell. These 200-ton ships had a range of over 100 miles (160 km) underwater. The French submarine Aigrette in 1904 further improved the concept by using a diesel rather than a gasoline engine for surface power. Large numbers of these submarines were built, with seventy-six completed before 1914.
[edit]Submarines during the Russo-Japanese War
The first mechanically powered series of submarines to be put into service by navies, which included Great Britain, Japan, Russia, and the United States, were the Holland submersibles built by Irish designer John Philip Holland in 1900.[12] Several of each of them were retained in both the Imperial Russian and Japanese Navies during the Russo-Japanese War in 1904-1905.
The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) started their submarine service with five Holland Type VII submarines purchased from the Electric Boat Company in 1904. The five vessels were delivered in sections, arriving in Japan on 14 June 1904. After re-assembly, the five Hollands were ready for combat operations in August 1905,[13] but the Russo-Japanese War was nearing its end by that date, and no IJN submarines would see action in that war.
The first submarines built in Japan were constructed by Kawasaki beginning in 1904. The Kaigun Holland Type #6 and #7 were each launched on 28 September but a year apart, in 1905 and 1906 respectively. Both submarines were modified versions of the original imported Hollands. However, while the original vessels had each displaced over a 100 tons submerged, and were approximately 67' long and 11' wide; the Kawasaki boats displaced only 63/95 tons submerged, and measured 73'/84' by 7' respectively for the number 6 & 7 submarines. The Kawasaki machines had increased horse-power by 1/2, and reduced fuel consumption by 1/4, but could only launch one 18" torpedo and carried 14 men, while the Hollands could fire two 18" torpedoes and operate with only 13 crewmen.[13] The Kaigun Holland #6 submarine has been preserved as a memorial at Kure, Japan.[13]
The Imperial Russian Navy (IRN) preferred the German constructed submersibles built by the Germaniawerft shipyards out of Kiel. In 1903 Germany successfully completed its first fully functional engine-powered submarine, the Forelle (Trout).[14] This vessel was sold to Russia in 1904 and shipped via the Trans-Siberian Railway to the combat zone during the Russo-Japanese War.[15] In 1901 two IRN Lieutenants, Kolbasieff and Kuteinoff designed and built the electric submarine Piotr Koschka which was operated by bicycle pedals, but no other versions were built. During the final weeks of the Port Arthur siege in 1904, the IRN attempted to place the Piotr Koschka into operation, her bicycle pedals having been replaced by an automobile engine. But the attempt to deploy the submarine into the Port Arthur battle was unsuccessful.[16]
A prototype version of the Plunger-class or A-class submarines, the Fulton, was developed at Nixon's Crescent Shipyard for the United States Navy before the construction of the A-class submarines there in 1901. A naval architect and shipbuilder from the United Kingdom, Arthur Leopold Busch, superintended the development of these first submarines for Holland's company. However the Fulton was never purchased by the U.S. Navy and was eventually sold to the Imperial Russian Navy during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Two other A-class vessels were built on the West Coast of (USA) at Mare Island Naval Shipyard/Union Iron Works circa 1901. In 1902, Holland received a patent for his persistent pursuit to perfect the underwater naval craft. By this time, Holland was no longer in control of the day-to-day operations at Electric Boat, as others were now at the helm of the company he once founded. The acumen of business were now in control of these operations as Holland was forced to step down. His resignation from the company was to be effective as of April 1904.[17]
The 1900 French submarine Narval
Due to the blockade at Port Arthur, Russia sent the remainder of their submarines to Vladivostok, where by 1 January 1905 there were seven boats, enough to create the world's first "operational submarine fleet." The new submarine fleet sent out its first patrol on 14 February, usually lasting for about 24 hours. The first confrontation with Japanese warships occurred on 29 April 1905 when the IRN sub Som was fired upon by IJN torpedo boats, but then withdrew.[18]
In 1904, the Imperial Russian Navy ordered several more submersibles from the Kiel shipyard, submarines from the Karp class. One sample of which was modified and improved, and commissioned into the Imperial German Navy in 1906 as its first U-Boat, the U-1.[15] U-1 was retired from service in 1919, and is currently preserved and on display in the Deutsches Museum in Munich.[19]
[edit]Submarines during World War I
The German submarine U-9, which sank three British cruisers in a few minutes in September 1914
Military submarines first made a significant impact in World War I. Forces such as the U-boats of Germany saw action in the First Battle of the Atlantic, and were responsible for the sinking of Lusitania, which was sunk as a result of unrestricted submarine warfare and is often cited among the reasons for the entry of the United States into the war.[20]
In August 1914, a flotilla of ten U-boats sailed from their base in Heligoland to attack Royal Navy warships in the North Sea in the first submarine war patrol in history.[21] Their aim was to sink capital ships of the British Grand Fleet, and so reduce the Grand Fleet's numerical superiority over the German High Seas Fleet. With much depending more on luck than strategy, the first sortie was not a success. Only one attack was carried out, when U-15 fired a torpedo (which missed) at HMS Monarch, while two of the ten U-boats were lost. The U-9 had better luck. On 22 September 1914 while patrolling the Broad Fourteens, a region of the southern North Sea, U-9 found a squadron of three obsolescent British Cressy-class armoured cruisers (HMS Aboukir, HMS Hogue, and HMS Cressy), which were assigned to prevent German surface vessels from entering the eastern end of the English Channel. She fired all six of her torpedoes, reloading while submerged, and sank all three in less than an hour.
German U-boat U 14
The U-boats' ability to function as practical war machines relied on new tactics, their numbers, and submarine technologies such as combination diesel-electric power system developed in the preceding years. More submersibles than true submarines, U-boats operated primarily on the surface using regular engines, submerging occasionally to attack under battery power. They were roughly triangular in cross-section, with a distinct keel to control rolling while surfaced, and a distinct bow. During World War I more than 5,000 Allied ships were sunk by U-boats.[22]
[edit]Interwar developments
Various new submarine designs were developed during the interwar years. Among the most notable ones were submarine aircraft carriers, equipped with a waterproof hangar and steam catapult to launch and recover one or more small seaplanes. The submarine and its plane could then act as a reconnaissance unit ahead of the fleet, an essential role at a time when radar still did not exist. The first example was the British HMS M2, followed by the French Surcouf, and numerous aircraft-carrying submarines in the Imperial Japanese Navy.
[edit]Submarines during World War II
[edit]Germany
Main article: U-boat
German submarine U-175 on the surface.
Germany had the largest submarine fleet during World War II. Due to the Treaty of Versailles limiting the surface navy, the rebuilding of the German surface forces had only begun in earnest a year before the outbreak of World War II. Expecting to be able to defeat the Royal Navy through underwater warfare, the German High Command pursued commerce raiding and immediately stopped all construction on capital surface ships save the nearly completed Bismarck-class battleships and two cruisers, switching its resources to submarines, which could be built more quickly. Though it took most of 1940 to expand the production facilities and get the mass production started, more than a thousand submarines were built by the end of the war.
During World War II, Germany utilized submarines to devastating effect in the Second Battle of the Atlantic, attempting to cut Britain's supply routes by sinking more merchant ships than Britain could replace. (Shipping was vital to supply Britain's population with food, industry with raw material, and armed forces with fuel and armaments.) While U-boats destroyed a significant number of ships, the strategy ultimately failed. Although the U-boats had been updated in the interwar years, the major innovation was improved communications, encrypted using the famous Enigma cipher machine. This allowed for mass-attack tactics (Rudeltaktik, commonly known as "wolfpack"), but was also ultimately the U-boats' downfall.
After putting to sea, U-boats operated mostly on their own, trying to find convoys in areas assigned to them by the High Command. If a convoy was found, the submarine did not attack immediately, but shadowed to guide other submarines in the area. These then attacked more or less simultaneously, preferably at night while surfaced, which offered a speed advantage over the escorting corvettes and denied the Allies the ability to use ASDIC, which was unable to detect surfaced submarines.
From September 1939 to the beginning of 1943,[citation needed] the Ubootwaffe ("U-boat force") scored unprecedented success with these tactics, but were too few to have any decisive success. By the spring of 1943, German U-boat construction was at full capacity, but this was more than nullified by increased numbers of convoy escorts and aircraft, as well as technical advances like radar and sonar. High Frequency Direction Finding (HF/DF, known as Huff-Duff) and Ultra allowed the Allies to route convoys around wolfpacks when they detected radio transmissions from trailing boats. The results were devastating: from March to July of that year, over 130 U-boats were lost, 41 in May alone. Concurrent Allied losses dropped dramatically, from 750,000 tons in March to only 188,000 in July. Although the Second battle of the Atlantic would continue to the last day of the war, the U-boat arm was unable to stem the tide of personnel and supplies, paving the way for Operation Torch, Operation Husky, and ultimately, D-Day. Winston Churchill wrote the U-boat "peril" was the only thing to ever give him cause to doubt eventual Allied victory.
By the end of the war, almost 3,000 Allied ships (175 warships, 2,825 merchantmen) were sunk by U-boats.[23] Of the 40,000 men in the U-boat service, 28,000 (70%) lost their lives.
[edit]Japan
Main article: Imperial Japanese Navy submarines
The Imperial Japanese Navy's I-400-class submarine, the largest submarine type of WWII
During World War II, the IJN operated the most varied fleet of submarines of any navy; including Kaiten crewed torpedoes, midget submarines (Ko-hyoteki and Kairyu), medium-range submarines, purpose-built supply submarines and long-range fleet submarines. They also had submarines with the highest submerged speeds during World War II (I-201-class submarines) and submarines that could carry multiple aircraft (I-400-class submarine). They were also equipped with one of the most advanced torpedoes of the conflict, the oxygen-propelled Type 95.
Nevertheless, despite their technical prowess, Japan had chosen to utilize its submarines for fleet warfare, and consequently were relatively unsuccessful, as warships were fast, maneuverable and well-defended compared to merchant ships. In 1942, a Japanese submarine sank one aircraft carrier, damaged one battleship, and damaged one destroyer (which sank later) from one torpedo salvo; and during the Battle of Midway were able to deliver the coup de grace to another fleet aircraft carrier, again, sinking another destroyer, for another multiple score from one salvo. But with the lack of fuel oil and air supremacy, Imperial submarines were not able to sustain those kind of results afterwards. By the end of the war, submarines were instead often relegated to transport supplies to island garrisons.
[edit]United States
Tang off Mare Island in 1943.
After the attack on Pearl Harbor, many of the U.S. Navy's front-line Pacific Fleet surface ships were destroyed or severely damaged. The submarines survived the attack and carried the war to the enemy. Lacking support vessels, the submarines were asked to independently hunt and destroy Japanese ships and submarines. They did so very effectively and without the assistance of other supporting ships.
During World War II the submarine force was the most effective anti-ship and anti-submarine weapon in the entire American arsenal. Submarines, though only about 2 percent of the U.S. Navy, destroyed over 30 percent of the Japanese Navy, including 8 aircraft carriers, 1 battleship and 11 cruisers. U.S. submarines also destroyed over 60 percent of the Japanese merchant fleet, crippling Japan's ability to supply its military forces and industrial war effort. Allied submarines in the Pacific War destroyed more Japanese shipping, than all other weapons combined. This feat was considerably aided by the Imperial Japanese Navy's failure to provide adequate escort forces for the nation's merchant fleet.
Of note, whereas Japan had the finest submarine torpedoes of the war, the U.S. Navy had the worst: for example, the U.S. Mark 14 torpedo typically ran ten feet too deep and was tipped with a Mk VI exploder, with both magnetic influence and contact features, neither reliable. The faulty depth control mechanism of the Mark 14 was corrected in August 1942, but field trials for the exploders were not ordered until mid-1943, when tests in Hawaii and Australia confirmed the flaws. In addition, the Mark 14 sometimes suffered circular runs, which sank at least one U.S. submarine, Tullibee.[24] Fully operational Mark 14 torpedoes were not put into service until September 1943. The Mark 15 torpedo used by U.S. surface combatants had the same Mk VI exploder and was not fixed until late 1943. One attempt to correct the problems resulted in a wakeless, electric torpedo (the Mark 18) being placed in submarine service; Tang was lost to a circular run by one of these torpedoes.[25] Given the prevalence of circular runs, there were probably other losses among boats which simply disappeared.[26]
During World War II, 314 submarines served in the United States Navy, of which nearly 260 were deployed to the Pacific.[27] On December 7, 1941, 111 boats were in commission; 203 submarines from the Gato, Balao, and Tench classes were commissioned during the war. During the war, 52 US submarines were lost to all causes, with 48 directly due to hostilities;[28] 3,505[27][29] sailors were lost, the highest percentage killed in action of any US service arm in World War II. U.S. submarines sank 1,560 enemy vessels,[27] a total tonnage of 5.3 million tons (55% of the total sunk),[30] including 8 aircraft carriers, a battleship, three heavy cruisers, and over 200 other warships.[30] In addition, the Japanese merchant marine lost 16,200 sailors killed and 53,400 wounded, of some 122,000 at the start of the war, due to submarines.[30]
[edit]United Kingdom
The British submarine HMS Venturer.
The Royal Navy Submarine Service was primarily used to enforce the classic British blockade role. It therefore chiefly operated in inshore waters[citation needed] and tended to only surface by night.
Its major operating areas were around Norway, the Mediterranean (against the Axis supply routes to North Africa), and in the Far East. Royal Navy submarines operating out of Trincomalee and Australia were a constant threat to Japanese shipping passing through the Malacca Straits.[citation needed]
In the war British submarines sank 2 million tons of enemy shipping and 57 major warships, the latter including 35 submarines. Among these is the only documented instance of a submarine sinking another submarine while both were submerged. This occurred when HMS Venturer engaged the U864; the Venturer crew manually computed a successful firing solution against a three-dimensionally manoeveuring target using techniques which became the basis of modern torpedo computer targeting systems. Seventy-four British submarines were lost,[31] the majority, 42, in the Mediterranean.
[edit]Snorkel
The diesel engines on HMS Ocelot charged the batteries located beneath the decking.
Diesel-electric submarines need air to run their diesel engines, and so carried very large batteries for submerged operation. The need to recharge the batteries from the diesel engines limited the endurance of the submarine while submerged and required it to surface regularly for extended periods, during which it was especially vulnerable to detection and attack. The snorkel, a pre-war Dutch invention, was used to allow German submarines to run their diesel engines whilst running just under the surface, drawing air through a tube from the surface.
The German Navy also experimented with engines that would use hydrogen peroxide to allow diesel fuel to be used while submerged, but technical difficulties were great. The Allies experimented with a variety of detection systems, including chemical sensors to "smell" the exhaust of submarines.
Cold-war diesel-electric submarines, such as the Oberon class, used batteries to power their electric motors in order to run silently. They recharged the batteries using the diesel engines without ever surfacing.[citation needed]
[edit]Modern military submarines
HMAS Rankin, a Collins-class submarine at periscope depth
The first launch of a cruise missile (SSM-N-8 Regulus) from a submarine occurred in July 1953 from the deck of USS Tunny, a World War II fleet boat modified to carry this missile with a nuclear warhead. Tunny and her sister boat Barbero were the United States's first nuclear deterrent patrol submarines. They were joined in 1958 by two purpose built Regulus submarines, Grayback, Growler, and, later, by the nuclear powered Halibut.
In the 1950s, nuclear power partially replaced diesel-electric propulsion. Equipment was also developed to extract oxygen from sea water. These two innovations gave submarines the ability to remain submerged for weeks or months, and enabled previously impossible voyages such as USS Nautilus' crossing of the North pole beneath the Arctic ice cap in 1958[32] and the USS Triton's submerged circumnavigation of the world in 1960.[33] Most of the naval submarines built since that time in the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia have been powered by nuclear reactors. The limiting factors in submerged endurance for these vessels are food supply and crew morale in the space-limited submarine.
In 1959–1960, the first ballistic missile submarines were put into service by both the United States (George Washington class) and the Soviet Union (Hotel class) as part of the Cold War nuclear deterrent strategy.
While the greater endurance and performance from nuclear reactors makes nuclear submarines better for long-distance missions or the protection of a carrier battle group, their reactor cooling pumps have traditionally made them noisier, and thus easier to detect, than conventional diesel-electric submarines. Diesel-electrics have continued to be produced by both nuclear and non-nuclear powers as they lack this limitation, except when required to run the diesel engine to recharge the ship’s battery. Recent technological advances in sound damping, noise isolation, and cancellation have made nuclear subs quieter and substantially eroded this disadvantage. Though far less capable regarding speed and weapons payload, conventional submarines are also cheaper to build. The introduction of air-independent propulsion boats, conventional diesel-electric submarines with some kind of auxiliary air-independent electricity generator, have led to increased sales of such types of submarines.
Nuclear powered Los Angeles-class submarines form the backbone of the United States submarine fleet.
During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union maintained large submarine fleets that engaged in cat-and-mouse games. The Soviet Union suffered the loss of at least four submarines during this period: K-129 was lost in 1968 (which the CIA attempted to retrieve from the ocean floor with the Howard Hughes -designed ship Glomar Explorer), K-8 in 1970, K-219 in 1986, and Komsomolets in 1989 (which held a depth record among military submarines—1000 m). Many other Soviet subs, such as K-19 (the first Soviet nuclear submarine, and the first Soviet sub to reach the North Pole) were badly damaged by fire or radiation leaks. The US lost two nuclear submarines during this time: USS Thresher due to equipment failure during a test dive while at its operational limit, and USS Scorpion due to unknown causes.
During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the Pakistan Navy's Hangor sank the Indian frigate INS Khukri. This was the first kill by a submarine since World War II, and the only one until the United Kingdom employed nuclear-powered submarines against Argentina in 1982 during the Falklands War. The Argentine cruiser General Belgrano was sunk by HMS Conqueror (the first sinking by a nuclear-powered submarine in war). The PNS Ghazi, a Tench-class submarine on loan to Pakistan from the US, was sunk in the Indo-Pakistani War. It was the first submarine casualty since World War II during war time.
More recently, Russia has had three high profile submarine accidents. The Kursk went down with all hands in 2000; the K-159 sank while being towed to a scrapyard in 2003, with nine lives lost; and the Nerpa had an accident with the fire-extinguishing system resulting in twenty deaths in late 2008.
India launched its first locally built nuclear-powered submarine, the INS Arihant, on July 26, 2009.[34]
A North Korean submarine's torpedo allegedly sank the South Korean navy ship ROKS Cheonan on 26 March 2010.[35]
[edit]Polar operations
US Navy attack submarine USS Annapolis rests in the Arctic Ocean after surfacing through three feet of ice during Ice Exercise 2009 on March 21, 2009.
1903 – Simon Lake submarine Protector surfaced through ice off Newport, Rhode Island.[36]
1930 – USS O-12 operated under ice near Spitsbergen.[36]
1937 – Soviet submarine Krasnogvardeyets operated under ice in the Denmark Strait.[36]
1941–45 – German U-boats operated under ice from the Barents Sea to the Laptev Sea.[36]
1946 – USS Atule used upward-beamed fathometer in Operation Nanook in the Davis Strait.[36]
1946–47 – USS Sennet used under-ice SONAR in Operation High Jump in the Antarctic.[36]
1947 – USS Boarfish used upward-beamed echo sounder under pack ice in the Chukchi Sea.[36]
1948 – USS Carp developed techniques for making vertical ascents and descents through polynyas in the Chukchi Sea.[36]
1952 – USS Redfish used an expanded upward-beamed sounder array in the Beaufort Sea.[36]
1957 – USS Nautilus reached 87 degrees north near Spitsbergen.[36]
3 August 1958 – Nautilus used an inertial navigation system to reach the North Pole.[36]
17 March 1959 – USS Skate surfaced through the ice at the north pole.[36]
1960 – USS Sargo transited 900 miles (1,400 km) under ice over the shallow (125 to 180 feet/38 to 55 metres deep) Bering-Chukchi shelf.[36]
1960 – USS Seadragon transited the Northwest Passage under ice.[36]
1962 – Soviet November-class submarine Leninskiy Komsomol reached the north pole.[36]
1970 – USS Queenfish carried out an extensive undersea mapping survey of the Siberian continental shelf.[37]
1971 – HMS Dreadnought reached the North Pole.[36]
6 May 1986 – USS Ray, USS Archerfish and USS Hawkbill meet and surface together at the Geographic North Pole. First multi-submarine surfacing at the Pole.[citation needed]
19 May 1987 – HMS Superb joined USS Billfish and USS Sea Devil at the North Pole. The first time British and Americans met at the North Pole.[citation needed]
March 2007 – USS Alexandria participated in the Joint U.S. Navy/Royal Navy Ice Exercise 2007 (ICEX-2007) in the Arctic Ocean with the Trafalgar-class submarine HMS Tireless.[citation needed]
March 2009 – USS Annapolis took part in Ice Exercise 2009 to test submarine operability and war-fighting capability in Arctic conditions.[citation needed]
[edit]Military usage
German UC-1-class World War I submarine
Before and during World War II, the primary role of the submarine was anti-surface ship warfare. Submarines would attack either on the surface or submerged, using torpedoes or (on the surface) deck guns. They were particularly effective in sinking Allied transatlantic shipping in both World Wars, and in disrupting Japanese supply routes and naval operations in the Pacific in World War II.
Mine-laying submarines were developed in the early part of the 20th century. The facility was used in both World Wars. Submarines were also used for inserting and removing covert agents and military forces, for intelligence gathering, and to rescue aircrew during air attacks on islands, where the airmen would be told of safe places to crash-land so the submarines could rescue them. Submarines could carry cargo through hostile waters or act as supply vessels for other submarines.
Retractable 7.5 cm submarine gun produced by the Krupp company circa 1900
Submarines could usually locate and attack other submarines only on the surface, although HMS Venturer managed to sink U-864 with a four torpedo spread while both were submerged. The British developed a specialized anti-submarine submarine in WWI, the R class. After WWII, with the development of the homing torpedo, better sonar systems, and nuclear propulsion, submarines also became able to hunt each other effectively.
The development of submarine-launched ballistic missile and submarine-launched cruise missiles gave submarines a substantial and long-ranged ability to attack both land and sea targets with a variety of weapons ranging from cluster bombs to nuclear weapons.
The primary defense of a submarine lies in its ability to remain concealed in the depths of the ocean. Early submarines could be detected by the sound they made. Water is an excellent conductor of sound (much better than air), and submarines can detect and track comparatively noisy surface ships from long distances. Modern submarines are built with an emphasis on stealth. Advanced propeller designs, extensive sound-reducing insulation, and special machinery allow a submarine to be as quiet as ambient ocean noise, making them difficult to detect. It takes specialized technology to find and attack modern submarines.
A model of Günther Prien's U-47, German WWII Type VII diesel-electric hunter
Active sonar uses the reflection of sound emitted from the search equipment to detect submarines. It has been used since WWII by surface ships, submarines and aircraft (via dropped buoys and helicopter "dipping" arrays), but it gives away the position of the emitter and is susceptible to counter-measures.
A concealed military submarine is a real threat, and because of its stealth, can force an enemy navy to waste resources searching large areas of ocean and protecting ships against attack. This advantage was vividly demonstrated in the 1982 Falklands War when the British nuclear-powered submarine HMS Conqueror sank the Argentine cruiser General Belgrano. After the sinking the Argentine Navy recognised that they had no effective defense against submarine attack, and the Argentine surface fleet withdrew to port for the remainder of the war, though an Argentine submarine remained at sea.
[edit]Civil usage
Tourist submarine
Although the majority of the world's submarines are military, there are some civil submarines. They have a variety of uses, including tourism, exploration, oil and gas platform inspections and pipeline surveys. The first tourist submarine was launched in 1985, and by 1997 there were 45 of them operating around the world.[38]
Interior of a tourist sub while submerged
Submarines with a crush depth in the range of 400–500 feet (120–150 m) are operated in several areas worldwide, typically with bottom depths around 100 to 120 feet (30 to 37 m), with a carrying capacity of 50 to 100 passengers. In a typical operation (for example, Atlantis submarines), a surface vessel carries passengers to an offshore operating area, where passengers are exchanged with those of the submarine. The submarine then visits underwater points of interests, typically either natural or artificial reef structures. To surface safely without danger of collision the location of the submarine is marked with an air release and movement to the surface is coordinated by an observer in a support craft.
A recent development is the deployment of so called narco submarines by South American drug smugglers, in order to evade detection.[39] Although they occasionally deploy true submarines, most are self-propelled semi-submersibles, where a portion of the craft remains above water at all times.
[edit]Technology
[edit]Submersion and trimming
All surface ships, as well as surfaced submarines, are in a positively buoyant condition, weighing less than the volume of water they would displace if fully submerged. To submerge hydrostatically, a ship must have negative buoyancy, either by increasing its own weight or decreasing its displacement of water. To control their weight, submarines have ballast tanks, which can be filled with outside water or pressurized air.
For general submersion or surfacing, submarines use the forward and aft tanks, called Main Ballast Tanks or MBTs, which are filled with water to submerge, or filled with air to surface. Under submerged conditions, MBTs generally remain flooded, which simplifies their design, and on many submarines these tanks are a section of interhull space. For more precise and quick control of depth, submarines use smaller Depth Control Tanks or DCTs, also called hard tanks due to their ability to withstand higher pressure. The amount of water in depth control tanks can be controlled either to reflect changes in outside conditions or change depth. Depth control tanks can be located either near the submarine's center of gravity, or separated along the submarine body to prevent affecting trim.
When submerged, the water pressure on submarine's hull can reach 4 MPa (580 psi) for steel submarines and up to 10 MPa (1,500 psi) for titanium submarines like Komsomolets, while interior pressure remains relatively unchanged. This difference results in hull compression, which decreases displacement. Water density also increases with depth, as the salinity and pressure are higher, but this incompletely compensates for hull compression, so buoyancy decreases as depth increases. A submerged submarine is in an unstable equilibrium, having a tendency to either fall or float to the surface. Keeping a constant depth requires continual operation of either the depth control tanks or control surfaces.[40][41]
Submarines in a neutral buoyancy condition are not intrinsically trim-stable. To maintain desired trim, submarines use forward and aft trim tanks. Pumps can move water between these, changing weight distribution, creating a moment pointing the sub up or down. A similar system is sometimes used to maintain stability.
Sail of the French nuclear submarine Casabianca; note the diving planes, camouflaged masts, periscope, electronic warfare masts, door and windows.
The hydrostatic effect of variable ballast tanks is not the only way to control the submarine underwater. Hydrodynamic maneuvering is done by several surfaces, which can be moved to create hydrodynamic forces when a submarine moves at sufficient speed. The stern planes, located near the propeller and normally horizontal, serve the same purpose as the trim tanks, controlling the trim, and are commonly used, while other control surfaces may not be present on many submarines. The fairwater planes on the sail and/or bow planes on the main body, both also horizontal, are closer to the centre of gravity, and are used to control depth with less effect on the trim.[42]
When a submarine performs an emergency surfacing, all depth and trim methods are used simultaneously, together with propelling the boat upwards. Such surfacing is very quick, so the sub may even partially jump out of the water, potentially damaging submarine systems.
[edit]Submarine hull
Main article: Submarine hull
[edit]Overview
The US Navy Los Angeles-class attack submarine USS Greeneville in dry dock, showing typical cigar-shaped hull.
Modern submarines are cigar-shaped. This design, visible in early submarines (see below) is sometimes called a "teardrop hull". It reduces the hydrodynamic drag when submerged, but decreases the sea-keeping capabilities and increases drag while surfaced. Since the limitations of the propulsion systems of early submarines forced them to operate surfaced most of the time, their hull designs were a compromise. Because of the slow submerged speeds of those subs, usually well below 10 kt (18 km/h), the increased drag for underwater travel was acceptable. Late in World War II, when technology allowed faster and longer submerged operation and increased aircraft surveillance forced submarines to stay submerged, hull designs became teardrop shaped again to reduce drag and noise. On modern military submarines the outer hull is covered with a layer of sound-absorbing rubber, or anechoic plating, to reduce detection.
The occupied pressure hulls of deep diving submarines such as DSV Alvin are spherical instead of cylindrical. This allows a more even distribution of stress at the great depth. A titanium frame is usually affixed to the pressure hull, providing attachment for ballast and trim systems, scientific instrumentation, battery packs, syntactic flotation foam, and lighting.
A raised tower on top of a submarine accommodates the periscope and electronics masts, which can include radio, radar, electronic warfare, and other systems including the snorkel mast. In many early classes of submarines (see history), the control room, or "conn", was located inside this tower, which was known as the "conning tower". Since then, the conn has been located within the hull of the submarine, and the tower is now called the "sail". The conn is distinct from the "bridge", a small open platform in the top of the sail, used for observation during surface operation.
"Bathtubs" are related to conning towers but are used on smaller submarines. The bathtub is a metal cylinder surrounding the hatch that prevents waves from breaking directly into the cabin. It is needed because surfaced submarines have limited freeboard, that is, they lie low in the water. Bathtubs help prevent swamping the vessel.
[edit]Single/double hull
U-995, Type VIIC/41 U-Boat of WWII, showing the typical combination of ship-like non-watertight outer hull with bulky strong hull below
Modern submarines and submersibles, as well as the oldest ones, usually have a single hull. Large submarines generally have an additional hull or hull sections outside. This external hull, which actually forms the shape of submarine, is called the outer hull (casing in the Royal Navy) or light hull, as it does not have to withstand a pressure difference. Inside the outer hull there is a strong hull, or pressure hull, which withstands sea pressure and has normal atmospheric pressure inside.
As early as World War I, it was realized that the optimal shape for withstanding pressure conflicted with the optimal shape for seakeeping and minimal drag, and construction difficulties further complicated the problem. This was solved either by a compromise shape, or by using two hulls; internal for holding pressure, and external for optimal shape. Until the end of World War II, most submarines had an additional partial cover on the top, bow and stern, built of thinner metal, which was flooded when submerged. Germany went further with the Type XXI, a general predecessor of modern submarines, in which the pressure hull was fully enclosed inside the light hull, but optimized for submerged navigation, unlike earlier designs that were optimized for surface operation.
Type XXI U-Boat, late WWII, with pressure hull almost fully enclosed inside the light hull
After World War II, approaches split. The Soviet Union changed its designs, basing them on German developments. All post–World War II heavy Soviet and Russian submarines are built with a double hull structure. American and most other Western submarines switched to a primarily single-hull approach. They still have light hull sections in the bow and stern, which house main ballast tanks and provide a hydrodynamically optimized shape, but the main cylindrical hull section has only a single plating layer. The double hulls are being considered for future submarines in the United States to improve payload capacity, stealth and range.[43]
[edit]Pressure hull
The pressure hull is generally constructed of thick high strength steel with a complex structure and high strength reserve, and is separated with watertight bulkheads into several compartments. There are also examples of more than two hulls in a submarine, like the Typhoon class, which has two main pressure hulls and three smaller ones for control room, torpedoes and steering gear, with the missile launch system between the main hulls.
The dive depth cannot be increased easily. Simply making the hull thicker increases the weight and requires reduction of onboard equipment weight, ultimately resulting in a bathyscaphe. This is acceptable for civilian research submersibles, but not military submarines.
WWI submarines had hulls of carbon steel, with a 100-metre (330 ft) maximum depth. During WWII, high-strength alloyed steel was introduced, allowing 200-metre (660 ft) depths. High-strength alloy steel remains the primary material for submarines today, with 250–400-metre (820–1,300 ft) depths, which cannot be exceeded on a military submarine without design compromises. To exceed that limit, a few submarines were built with titanium hulls. Titanium can be stronger than steel, lighter, and is not ferromagnetic, important for stealth. Titanium submarines were built by the Soviet Union, which developed specialized high-strength alloys. It has produced several types of titanium submarines. Titanium alloys allow a major increase in depth, but other systems need to be redesigned to cope, so test depth was limited to 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) for the Soviet submarine Komsomolets, the deepest-diving combat submarine. An Alfa-class submarine may have successfully operated at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft),[44] though continuous operation at such depths would produce excessive stress on many submarine systems. Titanium does not flex as readily as steel, and may become brittle during many dive cycles. Despite its benefits, the high cost of titanium construction led to the abandonment of titanium submarine construction as the Cold War ended. Deep diving civilian submarines have used thick acrylic pressure hulls.
The deepest Deep Submergence Vehicle (DSV) to date is Trieste. On October 5, 1959 Trieste departed San Diego for Guam aboard the freighter Santa Maria to participate in Project Nekton, a series of very deep dives in the Mariana Trench. On January 23, 1960, Trieste reached the ocean floor in the Challenger Deep (the deepest southern part of the Mariana Trench), carrying Jacques Piccard (son of Auguste) and Lieutenant Don Walsh, USN.[45] This was the first time a vessel, manned or unmanned, had reached the deepest point in the Earth's oceans. The onboard systems indicated a depth of 11,521 metres (37,799 ft), although this was later revised to 10,916 metres (35,814 ft) and more accurate measurements made in 1995 have found the Challenger Deep to be slightly shallower, at 10,911 metres (35,797 ft).
Building a pressure hull is difficult, as it must withstand pressures at its required diving depth. When the hull is perfectly round in cross-section, the pressure is evenly distributed, and causes only hull compression. If the shape is not perfect, the hull is bent, with several points heavily strained. Inevitable minor deviations are resisted by stiffener rings, but even a one inch (25 mm) deviation from roundness results in over 30 percent decrease of maximal hydrostatic load and consequently dive depth.[46] The hull must therefore be constructed with high precision. All hull parts must be welded without defects, and all joints are checked multiple times with different methods, contributing to the high cost of modern submarines. (For example, each Virginia-class attack submarine costs US$2.6 billion, over US$200,000 per ton of displacement.)
[edit]Propulsion
HMCS Windsor, a Victoria-class diesel-electric hunter-killer submarine
Originally, submarines were human propelled. The first mechanically driven submarine was the 1863 French Plongeur, which used compressed air for propulsion. Anaerobic propulsion was first employed by the Spanish Ictineo II in 1864, which used a solution of zinc, manganese dioxide, and potassium chlorate to generate sufficient heat to power a steam engine, while also providing oxygen for the crew. A similar system was not employed again until 1940 when the German Navy tested a hydrogen peroxide-based system, the Walter turbine, on the experimental V-80 submarine and later on the naval U-791 and type XVII submarines.[47]
Until the advent of nuclear marine propulsion, most 20th century submarines used batteries for running underwater and gasoline (petrol) or diesel engines on the surface, and for battery recharging. Early submarines used gasoline, but this quickly gave way to kerosene (paraffin), then diesel, because of reduced flammability. Diesel-electric became the standard means of propulsion. The diesel or gasoline engine and the electric motor, separated by clutches, were initially on the same shaft driving the propeller. This allowed the engine to drive the electric motor as a generator to recharge the batteries and also propel the submarine. The clutch between the motor and the engine would be disengaged when the submarine dived, so that the motor could drive the propeller. The motor could have multiple armatures on the shaft, which could be electrically coupled in series for slow speed and in parallel for high speed. (These connections were called "group down" and "group up", respectively.)
[edit]Electric transmission
[edit]Diesel-electric
Early submarines used a direct mechanical connection between the engine and propeller, switching between diesel engines for surface running, and electric motors for submerged propulsion.
In 1928 the United States Navy's Bureau of Engineering proposed a diesel-electric transmission; instead of driving the propeller directly while running on the surface, the submarine's diesel would drive a generator which could either charge the submarine's batteries or drive the electric motor. This meant that motor speed was independent of the diesel engine's speed, and the diesel could run at an optimum and non-critical speed, while one or more of the diesel engines could be shut down for maintenance while the submarine continued to run using battery power. The concept was pioneered in 1929 in the S-class submarines S-3, S-6, and S-7 to test the concept. No other navy adopted the system before 1945, apart from the Royal Navy's U-class submarines, though some submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy used separate diesel generators for low speed running.[48]
Other advantages of such an arrangement were that a submarine could travel slowly with the engines at full power to recharge the batteries quickly, reducing time on the surface or on snorkel. It was then possible to insulate the noisy diesel engines from the pressure hull, making the submarine quieter. Additionally, diesel-electric transmissions were more compact.
German Type XXI submarines, also known as "Elektroboote", were the first submarines designed to operate submerged for extended periods
[edit]Air-independent propulsion
Main article: Air-independent propulsion
During the Second World War, German Type XXI submarines were designed to carry hydrogen peroxide for long-term, fast air-independent propulsion, but were ultimately built with very large batteries instead. At the end of the War, the British and Russians experimented with hydrogen peroxide/kerosene (paraffin) engines which could be used surfaced and submerged. The results were not encouraging; although the Russians deployed a class of submarines with this engine type (codenamed Quebec by NATO), they were considered unsuccessful.
German Type 212 submarine with AIP propulsion in dock at HDW/Kiel
Today several navies use air-independent propulsion. Notably Sweden uses Stirling technology on the Gotland-class and Södermanland-class submarines. The Stirling engine is heated by burning diesel fuel with liquid oxygen from cryogenic tanks. A newer development in air-independent propulsion is hydrogen fuel cells, first used on the German Type 212 submarine, with nine 34 kW or two 120 kW cells and soon to be used in the new Spanish S-80 class submarines.[49]
[edit]Nuclear power
Main article: Nuclear submarine
HMS Astute is amongst the most advanced nuclear submarines in the world.[50]
Steam power was resurrected in the 1950s with a nuclear-powered steam turbine driving a generator. By eliminating the need for atmospheric oxygen, the length of time that a modern submarine could remain submerged was limited only by its food stores, as breathing air was recycled and fresh water distilled from seawater. Nuclear-powered submarines have a relatively small battery and diesel engine/generator powerplant for emergency use if the reactors must be shut down.
Nuclear power is now used in all large submarines, but due to the high cost and large size of nuclear reactors, smaller submarines still use diesel-electric propulsion. The ratio of larger to smaller submarines depends on strategic needs. The US Navy, French Navy, and the British Royal Navy operate only nuclear submarines,[51][52] which is explained by the need for distant operations. Other major operators rely on a mix of nuclear submarines for strategic purposes and diesel-electric submarines for defence. Most fleets have no nuclear submarines, due to the limited availability of nuclear power and submarine technology.
Diesel-electric submarines have a stealth advantage over their nuclear counterparts. Nuclear submarines generate noise from coolant pumps and turbo-machinery needed to operate the reactor, even at low power levels.[53] Some nuclear submarines such as the American Ohio class can operate with their reactor coolant pumps secured, making them quieter than electric subs. A conventional submarine operating on batteries is almost completely silent, the only noise coming from the shaft bearings, propeller, and flow noise around the hull, all of which stops when the sub hovers in mid water to listen, leaving only the noise from crew activity. Commercial submarines usually rely only on batteries, since they never operate independently of a mother ship.
Several serious nuclear and radiation accidents have involved nuclear submarine mishaps.[54][55] The Soviet submarine K-19 reactor accident in 1961 resulted in 8 deaths and more than 30 other people were over-exposed to radiation.[56] The Soviet submarine K-27 reactor accident in 1968 resulted in 9 fatalities and 83 other injuries.[54] The Soviet submarine K-431 accident in 1985 resulted in 10 fatalities and 49 other people suffered radiation injuries.[55]
[edit]Alternative propulsion
Oil-fired steam turbines powered the British K-class submarines, built during the first World War and later, to give them the surface speed to keep up with the battle fleet. The K-class subs were not very successful, however.
Toward the end of the 20th century, some submarines, such as the British Vanguard class, began to be fitted with pump-jet propulsors instead of propellers. Although these are heavier, more expensive, and less efficient than a propeller, they are significantly quieter, giving an important tactical advantage.
Magnetohydrodynamic drive (MHD) was portrayed as the operating principle behind the titular submarine's nearly silent propulsion system in the film adaptation of The Hunt for Red October. However, in the novel, the Red October did not use MHD. Although experimental surface ships have used this system, speeds have been below expectations.[citation needed] In addition, the drive system can induce bubble formation, compromising stealth, and the low efficiency requires high powered reactors. These factors make it unlikely for military usage.[citation needed]
[edit]Armament
A sequence of photos showing the decommissioned Australian warship HMAS Torrens sinking after being used as a target for a submarine-launched torpedo.
The success of the submarine is inextricably linked to the development of the torpedo, invented by Robert Whitehead in 1866. His invention is essentially the same now as it was 140 years ago. Only with self propelled torpedoes could the submarine make the leap from novelty to a weapon of war. Until the perfection of the guided torpedo, multiple "straight-running" torpedoes were required to attack a target. With at most 20 to 25 torpedoes stored onboard, the number of attacks was limited. To increase combat endurance most World War I submarines functioned as submersible gunboats, using their deck guns against unarmed targets, and diving to escape and engage enemy warships. The importance of guns encouraged the development of the unsuccessful Submarine Cruiser such as the French Surcouf and the Royal Navy's X1 and M-class submarines. With the arrival of ASW aircraft, guns became more for defense than attack. A more practical method of increasing combat endurance was the external torpedo tube, loaded only in port.
The forward torpedo tubes in HMS Ocelot
The ability of submarines to approach enemy harbours covertly led to their use as minelayers. Minelaying submarines of World War I and World War II were specially built for that purpose. Modern submarine-laid mines, such as the British Mark 6 Sea Urchin, are designed to be deployed by a submarine's torpedo tubes.
After World War II, both the US and the USSR experimented with submarine launched cruise missiles such as the SSM-N-8 Regulus and P-5 Pyatyorka. Such missiles required the submarine to surface to fire its missiles. They were the forerunners of modern submarine launched cruise missiles, which can be fired from the torpedo tubes of submerged submarines, for example the US BGM-109 Tomahawk and Russian RPK-2 Viyuga and versions of surface to surface anti-ship missiles such as the Exocet and Harpoon, encapsulated for submarine launch. Ballistic missiles can also be fired from a submarine's torpedo tubes, for example missiles such as the anti-submarine SUBROC. With internal volume as limited as ever and the desire to carry heavier warloads, the idea of the external launch tube was revived, usually for encapsulated missiles, with such tubes being placed between the internal pressure and outer streamlined hulls.
The strategic mission of the SSM-N-8 and the P-5 were taken up by submarine-launched ballistic missile beginning with the US Navy's Polaris missile, and subsequently the Poseidon and Trident missiles.
Germany is working on the short-range IDAS (missile) which is launched from a torpedo tube and can be used against ASW helicopters as well as surface ships and coastal targets.
[edit]Sensors
A submarine will have a variety of sensors determined by its missions. Modern military submarines rely almost entirely on a suite of passive and active sonars to find their prey. Active sonar relies on an audible "ping" to generate echoes to reveal objects around the submarine. Active systems are rarely used, as doing so reveals the sub's presence. Passive sonar is a set of sensitive hydrophones set into the hull or trailed in a towed array, generally several hundred feet long. The towed array is the mainstay of NATO submarine detection systems, as it reduces the flow noise heard by operators. Hull mounted sonar is employed to back up the towed array, and in confined waters where a towed array could be fouled by obstacles.
Submarines also carry radar equipment for detection of surface ships and aircraft. Sub captains are more likely to use radar detection gear rather than active radar to detect targets, as radar can be detected far beyond its own return range, revealing the submarine. Periscopes are rarely used, except for position fixes and to verify a contact's identity.
Civilian submarines, such as the DSV Alvin or the Russian Mir submersibles, rely on small active sonar sets and viewing ports to navigate. Sunlight does not penetrate below about 300 feet (91 m) underwater, so high intensity lights are used to illuminate the viewing area.
[edit]Navigation
Main article: Submarine navigation
The larger search periscope, and the smaller, less detectable attack periscope on HMS Ocelot
Early submarines had few navigation aids, but modern subs have a variety of navigation systems. Modern military submarines use an inertial guidance system for navigation while submerged, but drift error unavoidably builds up over time. To counter this, the Global Positioning System will occasionally be used to obtain an accurate position. The periscope - a retractable tube with prisms allowing a view to the surface - is only used occasionally in modern submarines, since the range of visibility is short. The Virginia-class submarines and Astute-class submarines have photonics masts rather than hull-penetrating optical periscopes. These masts must still be hoisted above the surface, and employ electronic sensors for visible light, infrared, laser range-finding, and electromagnetic surveillance. One benefit to hoisting the mast above the surface is that while the mast is above the water the entire sub is still below the water and is much harder to detect visibly or by radar.
[edit]Communication
Main article: Communication with submarines
Military submarines have several systems for communicating with distant command centers or other ships. One is VLF (Very Low Frequency) radio, which can reach a submarine either on the surface or submerged to a fairly shallow depth, usually less than 250 feet (76 m). ELF (Extremely Low Frequency) can reach a submarine at much greater depths, but has a very low bandwidth and are generally used to call a submerged sub to a shallower depth where VLF signals can reach. A submarine also has the option of floating a long, buoyant wire antenna to a shallower depth, allowing VLF transmissions to be made by a deeply submerged boat.
By extending a radio mast, a submarine can also use a "burst transmission" technique. A burst transmission takes only a fraction of a second, minimizing a submarine's risk of detection.
To communicate with other submarines, a system known as Gertrude is used. Gertrude is basically a sonar telephone. Voice communication from one submarine is transmitted by low power speakers into the water, where it is detected by passive sonars on the receiving submarine. The range of this system is probably very short, and using it radiates sound into the water, which can be heard by the enemy.
Civilian submarines can use similar, albeit less powerful systems to communicate with support ships or other submersibles in the area.
[edit]Crew
A typical nuclear submarine has a crew of over 80. Non-nuclear boats typically have fewer than half as many. The conditions on a submarine can be difficult because crew members must work in isolation for long periods of time, without family contact. Submarines normally maintain radio silence to avoid detection. Operating a submarine is dangerous, even in peacetime, and many submarines have been lost in accidents.
[edit]Women as part of crew
Most navies prohibited women from serving on submarines, even after they had been permitted to serve on surface warships. The Royal Norwegian Navy became the first navy to allow female crew on its submarines in 1985. The Royal Danish Navy allowed female submariners in 1988.[57] Others followed suit including the Swedish Navy (1989),[58] the Royal Australian Navy (1998), the German Navy (2001) and the Canadian Navy (2002). In 1995, Solveig Krey of the Royal Norwegian Navy became the first female officer to assume command on a military submarine, HNoMS Kobben.[59]
The British Royal Navy does not permit women to serve on its submarines because of "medical concerns for the safety of the fetus and hence its mother" due to the potentially compromised air quality onboard submarines.[60] Similar dangers to the pregnant woman and her fetus barred females from submarine service in Sweden 1983, when all other positions were made available for them in the Swedish Navy. Pregnant women are still not allowed to serve on submarines in Sweden. However, the policy makers thought that it was discriminatory with a general ban and demanded that females should be tried on their individual merits and have their suitability evaluated and compared to other candidates. Further, they noted that a female complying with such high demands is unlikely to become pregnant unawares.[58]
Women have served on U.S. Navy surface ships since 1993, and as of 2011-2012 will begin serving on submarines for the first time. Until presently, the Navy only allowed three exceptions for women being on board military submarines: female civilian technicians for a few days at most, women midshipmen on an overnight during summer training for both Navy ROTC and Naval Academy, and family members for one-day dependent cruises.[61] In 2009, senior officials, including then-Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus, Joint Chief of Staff Admiral Michael Mullen, and Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Gary Roughead, began the process of finding a way to implement females onboard submarines.[62] In 2011, the first classes of female submarine officers graduated from Naval Submarine School's Submarine Officer Basic Course (SOBC) at the Naval Submarine Base New London.[63] Additionally, more senior ranking and experienced female supply officers from the surface warfare specialty will attend SOBC as well, and proceed to fleet Ballistic Missile (SSBN) and Guided Missile (SSGN) submarines along with the new female submarine line officers beginning in late 2011/early 2012.[64]
Both the U.S. and British navies operate nuclear-powered submarines which deploy for periods of six months or longer, whereas the other navies that do permit women to serve on submarines operate conventionally powered submarines, which deploy for much shorter periods, usually only for one or two months.[65] Prior the recent change by the U.S., no nation using nuclear submarines permitted women to serve onboard them.[66]
[edit]Life support systems
With nuclear power, submarines can remain submerged for months at a time. Diesel submarines must periodically resurface or snorkel to recharge their batteries. Most modern military submarines generate breathing oxygen by electrolysis of water. Atmosphere control equipment includes a CO2 scrubber, which uses an amine absorbent to remove the gas from air and diffuse it into waste pumped overboard. A machine that uses a catalyst to convert carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide (removed by the CO2 scrubber) and bonds hydrogen produced from the ship's storage battery with oxygen in the atmosphere to produce water, is also used. An atmosphere monitoring system samples the air from different areas of the ship for nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, R-12 and R-114 refrigerants, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other gases. Poisonous gases are removed, and oxygen is replenished by use of an oxygen bank located in a main ballast tank. Some heavier submarines have two oxygen bleed stations (forward and aft). The oxygen in the air is sometimes kept a few percent less than atmospheric concentration to reduce fire danger.
Fresh water is produced by either an evaporator or a reverse osmosis unit. The primary use for fresh water is to provide feed water for the reactor and steam propulsion plants. It is also available for showers, sinks, cooking and cleaning once propulsion plant needs have been met. Seawater is used to flush toilets, and the resulting "black water" is stored in a sanitary tank until it is blown overboard using pressurized air or pumped overboard by using a special sanitary pump. The method for blowing sanitaries overboard is difficult to operate, and the German Type VIIC boat U-1206 was lost with casualties because of a mistake with the toilet.[67] Water from showers and sinks is stored separately in "grey water" tanks, which are pumped overboard using the drain pump.
Trash on modern large submarines is usually disposed of using a tube called a Trash Disposal Unit (TDU), where it is compacted into a galvanized steel can. At the bottom of the TDU is a large ball valve. An ice plug is set on top of the ball valve to protect it, the cans atop the ice plug. The top breech door is shut, and the TDU is flooded and equalized with sea pressure, the ball valve is opened and the cans fall out assisted by scrap iron weights in the cans. The TDU is also flushed with seawater to ensure it is completely empty and the ball valve is clear before shutting the valve.
[edit]See also
Submarine portal
DeepFlight Super Falcon, an experimental sub with hydrofoils in 2004
Autonomous underwater vehicle
Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle
List by death toll of ships sunk by submarines
List of countries with submarines
List of submarine actions
List of submarine museums
List of sunken nuclear submarines
Merchant submarine
Submarines in the United States Navy
Submarine films
Submarine simulator, a computer game genre
Submarine warfare
Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory (United States)
Category:Fictional submarines
[edit]Related topics
Depth charge
Timeline of underwater technology
Modern Naval tactics
Nuclear navy
Submarine communications cable
Submarine power cable
Submersible
Semi-submersible
Submarine Voyage
Midget submarine
[edit]Articles on specific vessels
List of submarines of the Royal Navy
List of submarines of the United States Navy
List of ships of the Soviet Navy#Submarines
Submarines of the People's Liberation Army Navy (China)
Submarines of the Indian Navy
List of U-boats
[edit]Articles on specific submarine classes
List of Soviet and Russian submarine classes
List of submarine classes
List of submarine classes of the Royal Navy
List of United States submarine classes
[edit]References
^ Inventor of the Week: Archive. mit.edu
^ Submarino Hipopótamo: http://www.armada.mil.ec/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=44
^ Hipopotamo submarine: Scale model at the Museum of Maritime History of the Ecuadorian Navy; http://www.digeim.armada.mil.ec/index.php?option=com_phocagallery&view=category&id=9:submarino-qhipopotamoq&Itemid=12
^ Showell p. 23
^ Chuck Veit "The Innovative Mysterious Alligator" page 26 US Naval Institute NAVAL HISTORY published August 2010 ISSN 1042-1920
^ Friends of the Hunley
^ H.L. Hunley
^ a b John Pike. "Globalsecurity". Globalsecurity. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ "Submarine Heritage Centre - submarine history of Barrow-in-Furness". Submarineheritage.com. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ Humble, Richard (1981). Underwater warfare. Chartwell Books, p. 174. ISBN 0890094241
^ "French Sub Gymnote". battleships-cruisers.co.uk. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
^ Simmons p. 107
^ a b c Jentschura p. 160
^ Showell p. 201
^ a b Showell p. 29
^ Watts p. 18, 21
^ U.S. Patent 708,553
^ Olender p. 175
^ Showell p. 36
^ Thomas Adam. Germany and the Americas. p. 1155.
^ Gibson and Prendergast, p. 2
^ Roger Chickering, Stig Förster, Bernd Greiner, German Historical Institute (Washington, D.C.) (2005). "A world at total war: global conflict and the politics of destruction, 1937-1945". Cambridge University Press. p.73. ISBN 0521834325
^ Crocker III, H. W. (2006). Don't Tread on Me. New York: Crown Forum. p. 310. ISBN 9781400053636.
^ Blair, p.576.
^ Blair, pp.767-768; O'Kane, Clear the Bridge.
^ Blair, passim.
^ a b c O'Kane, p. 333.
^ Blair, Clay, Jr. Silent Victory, pp. 991-2. The others were lost to accidents or, in the case of Seawolf, friendly fire.
^ Less the crews of S-26, R-12, and possibly Dorado lost to accident, and Seawolf, to friendly fire. S-36 and Darter, lost to grounding, took no casualties. Blair, passim.
^ a b c Blair, p.878.
^ "Submarine History". The Royal Navy. Retrieved 18 April 2007.[dead link]
^ History of USS Nautilus SSN571[dead link]
^ Tony Long. "May 10, 1960: USS ''Triton'' Completes First Submerged Circumnavigation". Wired.com. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ LYDIA POLGREEN (July 26, 2009). "India Launches Nuclear Submarine". New York Times.
^ Joe Lynam (2010-05-20). "'North Korean torpedo' sank South's navy ship - report". BBC News. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p McLaren, Alfred S., CAPT USN "Under the Ice in Submarines" United States Naval Institute Proceedings July 1981 pp.105-109
^ William J. Broad (March 18, 2008). "Queenfish: A Cold War Tale". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-02-17.
^ David Bruce Weaver (2001). The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism. CABI. p. 276. ISBN 0851993680.
^ Booth, William; Forero, Juan (2009-06-06). "Plying the Pacific, Subs Surface as Key Tool of Drug Cartels". The Washington Post.
^ "Physics Of Liquids & Gases". Elementary Classical Physics. Retrieved 2006-10-07.
^ Richard O'Kane (1987). Wahoo. Presidio Press. p. 12.
^ Roy Burcher, Louis Rydill (1995). Concepts In Submarine Design. Cambridge University Press. p. 170.
^ [1]. National Defense magazine.[dead link]
^ "Federation of American Scientists". Fas.org. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ "Trieste". History.navy.mil. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ US Naval Academy
^ "Details on German U-Boat Types". Sharkhunters International. Retrieved 2008-09-21.
^ Friedman, Norman (1995). [1557502633 U.S. submarines through 1945: an illustrated design history]. Naval Institute Press. pp. 259–260.
^ "S-80: A Sub, for Spain, to Sail Out on the Main". Defense Industry Daily. 15-Dec-2008.
^ Milligan, Brian (2007-05-07). "Alien submarine breaks technical barriers". BBC News. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ "Submarine Warfare". Archived from the original on 2006-10-11. Retrieved 2006-10-07.
^ "France Current Capabilities". Nti.org. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ Thompson, Roger (2007). Lessons Not Learned. US Naval Institute Press. p. 34. ISBN 9781591148654.
^ a b Johnston, Robert (September 23, 2007). "Deadliest radiation accidents and other events causing radiation casualties". Database of Radiological Incidents and Related Events.
^ a b The Worst Nuclear Disasters
^ Strengthening the Safety of Radiation Sources p. 14.
^ "NATO Review - Vol.49 - No 2 - Summer 2001: Women in uniform". Nato.int. 2001-08-31. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ a b "Historik" (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 1996-01-01.
^ "Forsvarsnett: Historikk" (in Norwegian). Archived from the original on 1996-01-01.
^ Royal Navy. "More Submarine FAQs".
^ question #10[dead link]
^ William H. McMichael and Andrew Scutro (September 27, 2009). "SecNav, CNO: Women should serve on subs". Navy Times.
^ http://www.ct.gov/oma/cwp/view.asp?a=3422&q=483312
^ http://www.navy.mil/search/display.asp?story_id=52990
^ "Commander of the Submarine Fleet".
^ "Navy Seeks to Allow Women to Serve on Submarines". Washingtonpost.com. September 26, 2009. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ "U-1206". Uboat.net. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
[edit]Bibliography
General history
Histoire des sous-marins: des origines à nos jours by Jean-Marie Mathey and Alexandre Sheldon-Duplaix. (Boulogne-Billancourt: ETAI, 2002).
Culture
Redford, Duncan. The Submarine: A Cultural History From the Great War to Nuclear Combat (I.B. Tauris, 2010) 322 pages; focus on British naval and civilian understandings of submarine warfare, including novels and film.
Submarines before 1914
Gardiner, Robert (1992). Steam, Steel and Shellfire, The steam warship 1815-1905. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 9781557507747. OCLC 30038068.
1900/Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905
Jentschura, Hansgeorg; Dieter Jung, Peter Mickel (1977). Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy 1869-1945. Annapolis, Maryland: United State Naval Institute. ISBN 0-87021-893-X.
Olender, Piotr (2010). Russo-Japanese Naval War 1904-1905 Vol. 2 Battle of Tsushima. Sandomierz 1, Poland: Stratus s.c.. ISBN 978-83-61421-02-3.
Showell, Jak (2006). The U-Boat Century-German Submarine Warfare 1906-2006. Great Britain: Chatham Publishing. ISBN 1-86176241-0.
Simmons, Jacques (1971). A Grosset All-Color Guide WARSHIPS. United States: Grosset & Dunlap, Inc.. ISBN 0-448-04165-0.
Watts, Anthony J. (1990). The Imperial Russian Navy. London: Arms and Armour Press. ISBN 0-85368-912-1.
World War II
Blair, Clay (1975). Silent Victory: The U.S. Submarine War Against Japan. Philadelphia: Lippincott. ISBN 9780397007530. OCLC 821363.
Lockwood, Charles A. (1951). Sink 'Em All: Submarine Warfare in the Pacific. New York: Dutton. OCLC 1371626.
O'Kane, Richard H. (1977). Clear the Bridge!: The War Patrols of the USS Tang. Chicago: Rand McNally. ISBN 9780528810589. OCLC 2965421.
O'Kane, Richard H. (1987). Wahoo: The Patrols of America's Most Famous World War II Submarine. Novato, California: Presidio Press. ISBN 9780891413011. OCLC 15366413.
Werner, Herbert A. (1999). Iron coffins: a personal account of the German U-Boat battles of World War II. London: Cassell Military. ISBN 9780304353309. OCLC 41466905.
Cold War
Hide and seek: the untold story of Cold War espionage at sea, by Peter Huchthausen and Alexandre Sheldon-Duplaix. (Hoboken, NJ: J. Wiley & Sons, 2008).
[edit]External links
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Submariners Association - UK Submariners site and Boat Database
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U.S. submarine photo archive
The Invention of the Submarine
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The Fleet Type Submarine Online US Navy submarine training manuals, 1944-1946.
The Home Front: Manitowoc County in World War II: Video footage of submarine launches into Lake Michigan during World War II.
American Society of Safety Engineers. Journal of Professional Safety. Submarine Accidents: A 60-Year Statistical Assessment. C. Tingle. Sept. 2009. Pages 31–39. Ordering full article: https://www.asse.org/professionalsafety/indexes/2009.php; or Reproduction less graphics/tables: http://www.allbusiness.com/government/government-bodies-offices-government/12939133-1.html.
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A Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force Oyashio-class submarine in 2006
A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation below the surface of the water. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability. The term submarine most commonly refers to a large crewed autonomous vessel; however, historically or colloquially, submarine can also refer to medium sized or smaller vessels (midget submarines, wet subs), remotely operated vehicles or robots.
The word submarine was originally an adjective meaning "under the sea"; consequently other uses such as "submarine engineering" or "submarine cable" may not actually refer at all to the vessel. Submarine was in fact shortened from the proper term, "submarine boat", and is often further shortened to "sub" when the word is employed informally. Submarines should always be referred to as "boats" rather than as "ships", regardless of their size. The English term U-boat for a German submarine comes from the German word for submarine, U-Boot, itself an abbreviation for Unterseeboot ("undersea boat").
Although experimental submarines had been built before, submarine design took off during the 19th century, and they were adopted by several different navies. Submarines were first widely used during World War I (1914–1918) and now feature in many large navies. Military usage includes attacking enemy surface ships or submarines, aircraft carrier protection, blockade running, ballistic missile submarines as part of a nuclear strike force, reconnaissance, conventional land attack (for example using a cruise missile), and covert insertion of special forces. Civilian uses for submarines include marine science, salvage, exploration and facility inspection/maintenance. Submarines can also be modified to perform more specialized functions such as search-and-rescue missions or undersea cable repair. Submarines are also used in tourism, and for undersea archaeology.
Most large submarines comprise a cylindrical body with hemispherical (and/or conical) ends and a vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices as well as periscopes. In modern submarines this structure is the "sail" in American usage, and "fin" in European usage. A "conning tower" was a feature of earlier designs: a separate pressure hull above the main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes. There is a propeller (or pump jet) at the rear and various hydrodynamic control fins as well as ballast tanks. Smaller, deep diving and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional layout.
Submarines have one of the largest ranges of capabilities in any vessel, ranging from small autonomous examples to one- or two-person vessels operating for a few hours, to vessels which can remain submerged for 6 months such as the Russian Typhoon class - the biggest submarines ever built and in use. Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or practical for human divers. Modern deep diving submarines are derived from the bathyscaphe, which in turn was an evolution of the diving bell.
Contents [hide]
1 History of submarines
1.1 Early history of submarines and the first submersibles
1.2 First military submarines
1.2.1 Submarines in the American Civil War
1.3 Mechanically powered submarines, late 19th century
1.4 End of the 19th century to the Russo-Japanese War
1.5 Submarines during the Russo-Japanese War
1.6 Submarines during World War I
1.7 Interwar developments
1.8 Submarines during World War II
1.8.1 Germany
1.8.2 Japan
1.8.3 United States
1.8.4 United Kingdom
1.8.5 Snorkel
1.9 Modern military submarines
1.10 Polar operations
2 Military usage
3 Civil usage
4 Technology
4.1 Submersion and trimming
4.2 Submarine hull
4.2.1 Overview
4.2.2 Single/double hull
4.2.3 Pressure hull
4.3 Propulsion
4.3.1 Electric transmission
4.3.1.1 Diesel-electric
4.3.2 Air-independent propulsion
4.3.3 Nuclear power
4.3.4 Alternative propulsion
4.4 Armament
4.5 Sensors
4.6 Navigation
4.7 Communication
5 Crew
5.1 Women as part of crew
6 Life support systems
7 See also
7.1 Related topics
7.2 Articles on specific vessels
7.3 Articles on specific submarine classes
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 External links
[edit]History of submarines
Main article: History of submarines
[edit]Early history of submarines and the first submersibles
The Drebbel, the first navigable submarine
The first submersible with reliable information on its construction was built in 1620 by Cornelius Jacobszoon Drebbel, a Dutchman in the service of James I of England. It was created to the standards of the design outlined by English mathematician William Bourne. It was propelled by means of oars. The precise nature of the submarine type is a matter of some controversy; some claim that it was merely a bell towed by a boat. Two improved types were tested in the Thames between 1620 and 1624. In 2002 a two-person version of Bourne's design was built for the BBC TV programme Building the Impossible by Mark Edwards, and successfully rowed under water at Dorney Lake, Eton.
Though the first submersible vehicles were tools for exploring under water, it did not take long for inventors to recognize their military potential. The strategic advantages of submarines were set out by Bishop John Wilkins of Chester, England, in Mathematicall Magick in 1648:
Tis private: a man may thus go to any coast in the world invisibly, without discovery or prevented in his journey.
Tis safe, from the uncertainty of Tides, and the violence of Tempests, which do never move the sea above five or six paces deep. From Pirates and Robbers which do so infest other voyages; from ice and great frost, which do so much endanger the passages towards the Poles.
It may be of great advantages against a Navy of enemies, who by this may be undermined in the water and blown up.
It may be of special use for the relief of any place besieged by water, to convey unto them invisible supplies; and so likewise for the surprisal of any place that is accessible by water.
It may be of unspeakable benefit for submarine experiments.
A replica of the Turtle on display at the Royal Navy Submarine Museum, Gosport
[edit]First military submarines
The first military submarine was Turtle (1775), a hand-powered acorn-shaped device designed by the American David Bushnell to accommodate a single person. It was the first verified submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion. During the American Revolutionary War, Turtle (operated by Sgt. Ezra Lee, Continental Army) tried and failed to sink the British warship HMS Eagle, flagship of the blockaders in New York harbor on September 7, 1776.[1]
The Nautilus (1800)
In 1800, France built a human-powered submarine designed by American Robert Fulton, the Nautilus. The French eventually gave up on the experiment in 1804, as did the British when they later considered Fulton's submarine design.
During the War of 1812, in 1814, Silas Halsey lost his life while using a submarine in an unsuccessful attack on a British warship stationed in New London harbor.
The Submarino Hipopótamo was the first submarine in South America built and tested in Ecuador on September 18, 1837. It was designed by Jose Rodriguez Lavandera, who successfully crossed the Guayas River in Guayaquil accompanied by Jose Quevedo. Rodriguez Lavandera had enrolled in the Ecuadorian Navy in 1823, becoming a Lieutenant by 1830. The Hipopotamo crossed the Guayas on two more occasions, but it was then abandoned because of lack of funding and interest from the government. Today, few engravings[2] and a scale model of the original design is preserved by the Maritime Museum of the Ecuadorian Navy.[3]
In 1851, a Bavarian artillery corporal, Wilhelm Bauer, took a submarine designed by him called the Brandtaucher (incendiary-diver), which sank on its first test dive in Kiel Harbour—but its three crewmen managed to escape, after flooding the vessel, which allowed the inside pressure to equalize.[4] This submarine was built by August Howaldt and powered by a treadwheel. The submarine was re-discovered during a dredging operation 1887, and was raised sixteen years later. The vessel is on display in a museum in Dresden.
The submarine Flach was commissioned in 1865 by the Chilean government during the war of Chile and Peru against Spain (1864–1866). It was built by the German engineer Karl Flach. The submarine sank during tests in Valparaiso bay on May 3, 1866, with the entire eleven-man crew.
[edit]Submarines in the American Civil War
The 1862 Alligator, first submarine of the US Navy, was developed in conjunction with the French
During the American Civil War, the Union was the first to field a submarine. The French-designed Alligator was the first U.S. Navy sub and the first to feature compressed air (for air supply) and an air filtration system. Initially hand-powered by oars, it was converted after 6 months to a screw propeller powered by a hand crank. With a crew of 20, it was larger than Confederate submarines. Alligator was 47 feet (14.3 m) long and about 4 feet (1.2 m) in diameter. It was lost in a storm off Cape Hatteras on April 1, 1863 with no crew and under tow to its first combat deployment at Charleston.[5]
The Confederate States of America fielded several human-powered submarines. The first Confederate submarine was the 30-foot (9 m) long Pioneer which sank a target schooner using a towed mine during tests on Lake Pontchartrain, but was not used in combat. It was scuttled after New Orleans was captured and in 1868 was raised and sold for scrap. The Bayou St. John Confederate Submarine was also scuttled without seeing combat, and is now on display at the Louisiana State Museum.
Confederate H.L. Hunley
The Confederate submarine H. L. Hunley (named for one of its financiers, Horace Lawson Hunley) was intended for attacking the North's ships, which were blockading the South's seaports. The submarine had a long pole with an explosive charge in the bow, called a spar torpedo. The sub had to approach an enemy vessel, attach an explosive, move away, and then detonate it. The sub was extremely hazardous to operate, and had no air supply other than what was contained inside the main compartment. On two occasions, the sub sank. On the first occasion half the crew died during an experimental voyage. On the second occasion, February 17, 1864, the salvaged and renovated vessel, now named CSS Hunley, sank the USS Housatonic off Charleston Harbor. Soon after signaling its success the submarine sank due to unknown cause; the entire eight-man crew (including Hunley himself) drowned. Submarines did not have a major impact on the outcome of the war, but did portend their future importance to, and increased interest in their use in, naval warfare. The location of Hunley was unknown until it was officially found in 1995,[6] and was then recovered in 2000. The sinking of the USS Housatonic by CSS Hunley was the first successful submarine attack on a warship.[7]
[edit]Mechanically powered submarines, late 19th century
Plongeur
The first submarine not relying on human power for propulsion was the French Plongeur (meaning diver), launched in 1863, and using compressed air at 180 psi (1241 kPa).[8]
The first combustion-powered submarine was Ictineo II, designed in Spain by NarcÃs Monturiol. Originally launched in 1864 as human-powered, propelled by 16,[8] it was converted to peroxide propulsion and steam in 1867. The 14 meter (46 ft) craft was designed for a crew of two, could dive to 30 metres (96 ft), and demonstrated dives of two hours. On the surface it ran on a steam engine, but underwater such an engine would quickly consume the submarine's oxygen; so Monturiol invented an air-independent propulsion system. While the air-independent power system drove the screw, the chemical process driving it also released oxygen into the hull for the crew and an auxiliary steam engine. Monturiol's fully functional, double hulled vessels also solved pressure and buoyancy control problems that had bedeviled earlier designs.
Replica of Ictineo II, Barcelona
In 1870, the French writer Jules Verne, inspired by the recent efforts of Monturiol and of his own navy, published the science fiction classic 20,000 Leagues under the Sea, which concerns the adventures of a maverick inventor of the Nautilus, a submarine more advanced than any at the time. An international success, the story encouraged inventors around the world to work towards making such a vehicle a reality.
Design of the Peruvian Toro, the first fully functional submarine built in Latin America.
In 1879, the Peruvian government, during the War of the Pacific, commissioned and built the fully operational submarine Toro Submarino. It never saw military action before being scuttled by the Peruvians after their defeat in the war to prevent its capture by the Chileans.
The first submarine to be mass-produced was human-powered. It was the submarine of the Polish inventor Stefan Drzewiecki—50 units were built in 1881 for the Russian government. In 1884 the same inventor built an electric-powered submarine.
The Nordenfelt-designed, Ottoman submarine Abdülhamid
Discussions between the English clergyman and inventor George Garrett and the industrially and commercially adept Swede Thorsten Nordenfelt led to a series of steam-powered submarines. The first was the Nordenfelt I, a 56 tonne, 19.5 metre (64 ft) vessel similar to Garret's ill-fated Resurgam (1879), with a range of 240 kilometres (150 mi, 130 nm), armed with a single torpedo, in 1885. Like Resurgam, Nordenfelt I operated on the surface by steam, then shut down its engine to dive. While submerged the submarine released pressure generated when the engine was running on the surface to provide propulsion for some distance underwater. Greece, fearful of the return of the Ottomans, purchased it. Nordenfelt then built Nordenfelt II (Abdülhamid) in 1886 and Nordenfelt III (Abdülmecid) in 1887, a pair of 30 metre (100 ft) submarines with twin torpedo tubes, for the Ottoman navy. Abdülhamid became the first submarine in history to fire a torpedo submerged.[9] Nordenfelt's efforts culminated in 1887 with Nordenfelt IV which had twin motors and twin torpedoes. It was sold to the Russians, but proved unstable, ran aground, and was scrapped.
Peral submarine hull, Cartagena
Two submarines, both launched in September 1888, marked the maturing of naval submarine technology.
One was the Peral Submarine, launched by the Spanish Navy. It had two torpedoes, new air systems, hull shape, propeller, and cruciform external controls anticipating much later designs. Peral was the first all-electrical powered submarine.[10] After two years of trials the project was scrapped by naval officialdom that cited concerns over the short range permitted by its batteries.
The other was the Gymnote, launched by the French Navy. Gymnote was also an electrically powered and fully functional military submarine. It completed over 2,000 successful dives using a 204-cell battery.[11] Although she was scrapped for her limited range her side hydroplanes became the standard for future submarine designs.
Many more designs were built at this time by various inventors, but submarines were not put into service by navies until 1900.
[edit]End of the 19th century to the Russo-Japanese War
The turn of the 20th century marked a pivotal time in the development of submarines, with a number of important technologies making their debut, as well as the widespread adoption and fielding of submarines by a number of nations. Diesel electric propulsion would become the dominant power system and equipment such as the periscope would become standardized. Large numbers of experiments were done by countries on effective tactics and weapons for submarines, all of which would culminate in them making a large impact on the coming World War I.
USS Plunger, launched in 1902
In 1896, the Irish-American inventor John Philip Holland designed submarines that, for the first time, made use of internal combustion engines on the surface and electric battery power submerged. Fenian Ram, in 1881, was world's first successful submarine.[citation needed] Holland VI was launched on May 17, 1897 at Navy Lt. Lewis Nixon's Crescent Shipyard of Elizabeth, New Jersey. On April 11, 1900 the United States Navy purchased the revolutionary Holland VI and renamed it USS Holland (SS-1), America's first commissioned submarine. (John P. Holland's company, the Holland Torpedo Boat Company/Electric Boat Company became General Dynamics' Cold War progeny and is arguably the builder of the world's most technologically advanced submarines today).
Commissioned in June 1900, the French steam and electric Narval introduced the classic double-hull design, with a pressure hull inside the outer shell. These 200-ton ships had a range of over 100 miles (160 km) underwater. The French submarine Aigrette in 1904 further improved the concept by using a diesel rather than a gasoline engine for surface power. Large numbers of these submarines were built, with seventy-six completed before 1914.
[edit]Submarines during the Russo-Japanese War
The first mechanically powered series of submarines to be put into service by navies, which included Great Britain, Japan, Russia, and the United States, were the Holland submersibles built by Irish designer John Philip Holland in 1900.[12] Several of each of them were retained in both the Imperial Russian and Japanese Navies during the Russo-Japanese War in 1904-1905.
The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) started their submarine service with five Holland Type VII submarines purchased from the Electric Boat Company in 1904. The five vessels were delivered in sections, arriving in Japan on 14 June 1904. After re-assembly, the five Hollands were ready for combat operations in August 1905,[13] but the Russo-Japanese War was nearing its end by that date, and no IJN submarines would see action in that war.
The first submarines built in Japan were constructed by Kawasaki beginning in 1904. The Kaigun Holland Type #6 and #7 were each launched on 28 September but a year apart, in 1905 and 1906 respectively. Both submarines were modified versions of the original imported Hollands. However, while the original vessels had each displaced over a 100 tons submerged, and were approximately 67' long and 11' wide; the Kawasaki boats displaced only 63/95 tons submerged, and measured 73'/84' by 7' respectively for the number 6 & 7 submarines. The Kawasaki machines had increased horse-power by 1/2, and reduced fuel consumption by 1/4, but could only launch one 18" torpedo and carried 14 men, while the Hollands could fire two 18" torpedoes and operate with only 13 crewmen.[13] The Kaigun Holland #6 submarine has been preserved as a memorial at Kure, Japan.[13]
The Imperial Russian Navy (IRN) preferred the German constructed submersibles built by the Germaniawerft shipyards out of Kiel. In 1903 Germany successfully completed its first fully functional engine-powered submarine, the Forelle (Trout).[14] This vessel was sold to Russia in 1904 and shipped via the Trans-Siberian Railway to the combat zone during the Russo-Japanese War.[15] In 1901 two IRN Lieutenants, Kolbasieff and Kuteinoff designed and built the electric submarine Piotr Koschka which was operated by bicycle pedals, but no other versions were built. During the final weeks of the Port Arthur siege in 1904, the IRN attempted to place the Piotr Koschka into operation, her bicycle pedals having been replaced by an automobile engine. But the attempt to deploy the submarine into the Port Arthur battle was unsuccessful.[16]
A prototype version of the Plunger-class or A-class submarines, the Fulton, was developed at Nixon's Crescent Shipyard for the United States Navy before the construction of the A-class submarines there in 1901. A naval architect and shipbuilder from the United Kingdom, Arthur Leopold Busch, superintended the development of these first submarines for Holland's company. However the Fulton was never purchased by the U.S. Navy and was eventually sold to the Imperial Russian Navy during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Two other A-class vessels were built on the West Coast of (USA) at Mare Island Naval Shipyard/Union Iron Works circa 1901. In 1902, Holland received a patent for his persistent pursuit to perfect the underwater naval craft. By this time, Holland was no longer in control of the day-to-day operations at Electric Boat, as others were now at the helm of the company he once founded. The acumen of business were now in control of these operations as Holland was forced to step down. His resignation from the company was to be effective as of April 1904.[17]
The 1900 French submarine Narval
Due to the blockade at Port Arthur, Russia sent the remainder of their submarines to Vladivostok, where by 1 January 1905 there were seven boats, enough to create the world's first "operational submarine fleet." The new submarine fleet sent out its first patrol on 14 February, usually lasting for about 24 hours. The first confrontation with Japanese warships occurred on 29 April 1905 when the IRN sub Som was fired upon by IJN torpedo boats, but then withdrew.[18]
In 1904, the Imperial Russian Navy ordered several more submersibles from the Kiel shipyard, submarines from the Karp class. One sample of which was modified and improved, and commissioned into the Imperial German Navy in 1906 as its first U-Boat, the U-1.[15] U-1 was retired from service in 1919, and is currently preserved and on display in the Deutsches Museum in Munich.[19]
[edit]Submarines during World War I
The German submarine U-9, which sank three British cruisers in a few minutes in September 1914
Military submarines first made a significant impact in World War I. Forces such as the U-boats of Germany saw action in the First Battle of the Atlantic, and were responsible for the sinking of Lusitania, which was sunk as a result of unrestricted submarine warfare and is often cited among the reasons for the entry of the United States into the war.[20]
In August 1914, a flotilla of ten U-boats sailed from their base in Heligoland to attack Royal Navy warships in the North Sea in the first submarine war patrol in history.[21] Their aim was to sink capital ships of the British Grand Fleet, and so reduce the Grand Fleet's numerical superiority over the German High Seas Fleet. With much depending more on luck than strategy, the first sortie was not a success. Only one attack was carried out, when U-15 fired a torpedo (which missed) at HMS Monarch, while two of the ten U-boats were lost. The U-9 had better luck. On 22 September 1914 while patrolling the Broad Fourteens, a region of the southern North Sea, U-9 found a squadron of three obsolescent British Cressy-class armoured cruisers (HMS Aboukir, HMS Hogue, and HMS Cressy), which were assigned to prevent German surface vessels from entering the eastern end of the English Channel. She fired all six of her torpedoes, reloading while submerged, and sank all three in less than an hour.
German U-boat U 14
The U-boats' ability to function as practical war machines relied on new tactics, their numbers, and submarine technologies such as combination diesel-electric power system developed in the preceding years. More submersibles than true submarines, U-boats operated primarily on the surface using regular engines, submerging occasionally to attack under battery power. They were roughly triangular in cross-section, with a distinct keel to control rolling while surfaced, and a distinct bow. During World War I more than 5,000 Allied ships were sunk by U-boats.[22]
[edit]Interwar developments
Various new submarine designs were developed during the interwar years. Among the most notable ones were submarine aircraft carriers, equipped with a waterproof hangar and steam catapult to launch and recover one or more small seaplanes. The submarine and its plane could then act as a reconnaissance unit ahead of the fleet, an essential role at a time when radar still did not exist. The first example was the British HMS M2, followed by the French Surcouf, and numerous aircraft-carrying submarines in the Imperial Japanese Navy.
[edit]Submarines during World War II
[edit]Germany
Main article: U-boat
German submarine U-175 on the surface.
Germany had the largest submarine fleet during World War II. Due to the Treaty of Versailles limiting the surface navy, the rebuilding of the German surface forces had only begun in earnest a year before the outbreak of World War II. Expecting to be able to defeat the Royal Navy through underwater warfare, the German High Command pursued commerce raiding and immediately stopped all construction on capital surface ships save the nearly completed Bismarck-class battleships and two cruisers, switching its resources to submarines, which could be built more quickly. Though it took most of 1940 to expand the production facilities and get the mass production started, more than a thousand submarines were built by the end of the war.
During World War II, Germany utilized submarines to devastating effect in the Second Battle of the Atlantic, attempting to cut Britain's supply routes by sinking more merchant ships than Britain could replace. (Shipping was vital to supply Britain's population with food, industry with raw material, and armed forces with fuel and armaments.) While U-boats destroyed a significant number of ships, the strategy ultimately failed. Although the U-boats had been updated in the interwar years, the major innovation was improved communications, encrypted using the famous Enigma cipher machine. This allowed for mass-attack tactics (Rudeltaktik, commonly known as "wolfpack"), but was also ultimately the U-boats' downfall.
After putting to sea, U-boats operated mostly on their own, trying to find convoys in areas assigned to them by the High Command. If a convoy was found, the submarine did not attack immediately, but shadowed to guide other submarines in the area. These then attacked more or less simultaneously, preferably at night while surfaced, which offered a speed advantage over the escorting corvettes and denied the Allies the ability to use ASDIC, which was unable to detect surfaced submarines.
From September 1939 to the beginning of 1943,[citation needed] the Ubootwaffe ("U-boat force") scored unprecedented success with these tactics, but were too few to have any decisive success. By the spring of 1943, German U-boat construction was at full capacity, but this was more than nullified by increased numbers of convoy escorts and aircraft, as well as technical advances like radar and sonar. High Frequency Direction Finding (HF/DF, known as Huff-Duff) and Ultra allowed the Allies to route convoys around wolfpacks when they detected radio transmissions from trailing boats. The results were devastating: from March to July of that year, over 130 U-boats were lost, 41 in May alone. Concurrent Allied losses dropped dramatically, from 750,000 tons in March to only 188,000 in July. Although the Second battle of the Atlantic would continue to the last day of the war, the U-boat arm was unable to stem the tide of personnel and supplies, paving the way for Operation Torch, Operation Husky, and ultimately, D-Day. Winston Churchill wrote the U-boat "peril" was the only thing to ever give him cause to doubt eventual Allied victory.
By the end of the war, almost 3,000 Allied ships (175 warships, 2,825 merchantmen) were sunk by U-boats.[23] Of the 40,000 men in the U-boat service, 28,000 (70%) lost their lives.
[edit]Japan
Main article: Imperial Japanese Navy submarines
The Imperial Japanese Navy's I-400-class submarine, the largest submarine type of WWII
During World War II, the IJN operated the most varied fleet of submarines of any navy; including Kaiten crewed torpedoes, midget submarines (Ko-hyoteki and Kairyu), medium-range submarines, purpose-built supply submarines and long-range fleet submarines. They also had submarines with the highest submerged speeds during World War II (I-201-class submarines) and submarines that could carry multiple aircraft (I-400-class submarine). They were also equipped with one of the most advanced torpedoes of the conflict, the oxygen-propelled Type 95.
Nevertheless, despite their technical prowess, Japan had chosen to utilize its submarines for fleet warfare, and consequently were relatively unsuccessful, as warships were fast, maneuverable and well-defended compared to merchant ships. In 1942, a Japanese submarine sank one aircraft carrier, damaged one battleship, and damaged one destroyer (which sank later) from one torpedo salvo; and during the Battle of Midway were able to deliver the coup de grace to another fleet aircraft carrier, again, sinking another destroyer, for another multiple score from one salvo. But with the lack of fuel oil and air supremacy, Imperial submarines were not able to sustain those kind of results afterwards. By the end of the war, submarines were instead often relegated to transport supplies to island garrisons.
[edit]United States
Tang off Mare Island in 1943.
After the attack on Pearl Harbor, many of the U.S. Navy's front-line Pacific Fleet surface ships were destroyed or severely damaged. The submarines survived the attack and carried the war to the enemy. Lacking support vessels, the submarines were asked to independently hunt and destroy Japanese ships and submarines. They did so very effectively and without the assistance of other supporting ships.
During World War II the submarine force was the most effective anti-ship and anti-submarine weapon in the entire American arsenal. Submarines, though only about 2 percent of the U.S. Navy, destroyed over 30 percent of the Japanese Navy, including 8 aircraft carriers, 1 battleship and 11 cruisers. U.S. submarines also destroyed over 60 percent of the Japanese merchant fleet, crippling Japan's ability to supply its military forces and industrial war effort. Allied submarines in the Pacific War destroyed more Japanese shipping, than all other weapons combined. This feat was considerably aided by the Imperial Japanese Navy's failure to provide adequate escort forces for the nation's merchant fleet.
Of note, whereas Japan had the finest submarine torpedoes of the war, the U.S. Navy had the worst: for example, the U.S. Mark 14 torpedo typically ran ten feet too deep and was tipped with a Mk VI exploder, with both magnetic influence and contact features, neither reliable. The faulty depth control mechanism of the Mark 14 was corrected in August 1942, but field trials for the exploders were not ordered until mid-1943, when tests in Hawaii and Australia confirmed the flaws. In addition, the Mark 14 sometimes suffered circular runs, which sank at least one U.S. submarine, Tullibee.[24] Fully operational Mark 14 torpedoes were not put into service until September 1943. The Mark 15 torpedo used by U.S. surface combatants had the same Mk VI exploder and was not fixed until late 1943. One attempt to correct the problems resulted in a wakeless, electric torpedo (the Mark 18) being placed in submarine service; Tang was lost to a circular run by one of these torpedoes.[25] Given the prevalence of circular runs, there were probably other losses among boats which simply disappeared.[26]
During World War II, 314 submarines served in the United States Navy, of which nearly 260 were deployed to the Pacific.[27] On December 7, 1941, 111 boats were in commission; 203 submarines from the Gato, Balao, and Tench classes were commissioned during the war. During the war, 52 US submarines were lost to all causes, with 48 directly due to hostilities;[28] 3,505[27][29] sailors were lost, the highest percentage killed in action of any US service arm in World War II. U.S. submarines sank 1,560 enemy vessels,[27] a total tonnage of 5.3 million tons (55% of the total sunk),[30] including 8 aircraft carriers, a battleship, three heavy cruisers, and over 200 other warships.[30] In addition, the Japanese merchant marine lost 16,200 sailors killed and 53,400 wounded, of some 122,000 at the start of the war, due to submarines.[30]
[edit]United Kingdom
The British submarine HMS Venturer.
The Royal Navy Submarine Service was primarily used to enforce the classic British blockade role. It therefore chiefly operated in inshore waters[citation needed] and tended to only surface by night.
Its major operating areas were around Norway, the Mediterranean (against the Axis supply routes to North Africa), and in the Far East. Royal Navy submarines operating out of Trincomalee and Australia were a constant threat to Japanese shipping passing through the Malacca Straits.[citation needed]
In the war British submarines sank 2 million tons of enemy shipping and 57 major warships, the latter including 35 submarines. Among these is the only documented instance of a submarine sinking another submarine while both were submerged. This occurred when HMS Venturer engaged the U864; the Venturer crew manually computed a successful firing solution against a three-dimensionally manoeveuring target using techniques which became the basis of modern torpedo computer targeting systems. Seventy-four British submarines were lost,[31] the majority, 42, in the Mediterranean.
[edit]Snorkel
The diesel engines on HMS Ocelot charged the batteries located beneath the decking.
Diesel-electric submarines need air to run their diesel engines, and so carried very large batteries for submerged operation. The need to recharge the batteries from the diesel engines limited the endurance of the submarine while submerged and required it to surface regularly for extended periods, during which it was especially vulnerable to detection and attack. The snorkel, a pre-war Dutch invention, was used to allow German submarines to run their diesel engines whilst running just under the surface, drawing air through a tube from the surface.
The German Navy also experimented with engines that would use hydrogen peroxide to allow diesel fuel to be used while submerged, but technical difficulties were great. The Allies experimented with a variety of detection systems, including chemical sensors to "smell" the exhaust of submarines.
Cold-war diesel-electric submarines, such as the Oberon class, used batteries to power their electric motors in order to run silently. They recharged the batteries using the diesel engines without ever surfacing.[citation needed]
[edit]Modern military submarines
HMAS Rankin, a Collins-class submarine at periscope depth
The first launch of a cruise missile (SSM-N-8 Regulus) from a submarine occurred in July 1953 from the deck of USS Tunny, a World War II fleet boat modified to carry this missile with a nuclear warhead. Tunny and her sister boat Barbero were the United States's first nuclear deterrent patrol submarines. They were joined in 1958 by two purpose built Regulus submarines, Grayback, Growler, and, later, by the nuclear powered Halibut.
In the 1950s, nuclear power partially replaced diesel-electric propulsion. Equipment was also developed to extract oxygen from sea water. These two innovations gave submarines the ability to remain submerged for weeks or months, and enabled previously impossible voyages such as USS Nautilus' crossing of the North pole beneath the Arctic ice cap in 1958[32] and the USS Triton's submerged circumnavigation of the world in 1960.[33] Most of the naval submarines built since that time in the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia have been powered by nuclear reactors. The limiting factors in submerged endurance for these vessels are food supply and crew morale in the space-limited submarine.
In 1959–1960, the first ballistic missile submarines were put into service by both the United States (George Washington class) and the Soviet Union (Hotel class) as part of the Cold War nuclear deterrent strategy.
While the greater endurance and performance from nuclear reactors makes nuclear submarines better for long-distance missions or the protection of a carrier battle group, their reactor cooling pumps have traditionally made them noisier, and thus easier to detect, than conventional diesel-electric submarines. Diesel-electrics have continued to be produced by both nuclear and non-nuclear powers as they lack this limitation, except when required to run the diesel engine to recharge the ship’s battery. Recent technological advances in sound damping, noise isolation, and cancellation have made nuclear subs quieter and substantially eroded this disadvantage. Though far less capable regarding speed and weapons payload, conventional submarines are also cheaper to build. The introduction of air-independent propulsion boats, conventional diesel-electric submarines with some kind of auxiliary air-independent electricity generator, have led to increased sales of such types of submarines.
Nuclear powered Los Angeles-class submarines form the backbone of the United States submarine fleet.
During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union maintained large submarine fleets that engaged in cat-and-mouse games. The Soviet Union suffered the loss of at least four submarines during this period: K-129 was lost in 1968 (which the CIA attempted to retrieve from the ocean floor with the Howard Hughes -designed ship Glomar Explorer), K-8 in 1970, K-219 in 1986, and Komsomolets in 1989 (which held a depth record among military submarines—1000 m). Many other Soviet subs, such as K-19 (the first Soviet nuclear submarine, and the first Soviet sub to reach the North Pole) were badly damaged by fire or radiation leaks. The US lost two nuclear submarines during this time: USS Thresher due to equipment failure during a test dive while at its operational limit, and USS Scorpion due to unknown causes.
During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the Pakistan Navy's Hangor sank the Indian frigate INS Khukri. This was the first kill by a submarine since World War II, and the only one until the United Kingdom employed nuclear-powered submarines against Argentina in 1982 during the Falklands War. The Argentine cruiser General Belgrano was sunk by HMS Conqueror (the first sinking by a nuclear-powered submarine in war). The PNS Ghazi, a Tench-class submarine on loan to Pakistan from the US, was sunk in the Indo-Pakistani War. It was the first submarine casualty since World War II during war time.
More recently, Russia has had three high profile submarine accidents. The Kursk went down with all hands in 2000; the K-159 sank while being towed to a scrapyard in 2003, with nine lives lost; and the Nerpa had an accident with the fire-extinguishing system resulting in twenty deaths in late 2008.
India launched its first locally built nuclear-powered submarine, the INS Arihant, on July 26, 2009.[34]
A North Korean submarine's torpedo allegedly sank the South Korean navy ship ROKS Cheonan on 26 March 2010.[35]
[edit]Polar operations
US Navy attack submarine USS Annapolis rests in the Arctic Ocean after surfacing through three feet of ice during Ice Exercise 2009 on March 21, 2009.
1903 – Simon Lake submarine Protector surfaced through ice off Newport, Rhode Island.[36]
1930 – USS O-12 operated under ice near Spitsbergen.[36]
1937 – Soviet submarine Krasnogvardeyets operated under ice in the Denmark Strait.[36]
1941–45 – German U-boats operated under ice from the Barents Sea to the Laptev Sea.[36]
1946 – USS Atule used upward-beamed fathometer in Operation Nanook in the Davis Strait.[36]
1946–47 – USS Sennet used under-ice SONAR in Operation High Jump in the Antarctic.[36]
1947 – USS Boarfish used upward-beamed echo sounder under pack ice in the Chukchi Sea.[36]
1948 – USS Carp developed techniques for making vertical ascents and descents through polynyas in the Chukchi Sea.[36]
1952 – USS Redfish used an expanded upward-beamed sounder array in the Beaufort Sea.[36]
1957 – USS Nautilus reached 87 degrees north near Spitsbergen.[36]
3 August 1958 – Nautilus used an inertial navigation system to reach the North Pole.[36]
17 March 1959 – USS Skate surfaced through the ice at the north pole.[36]
1960 – USS Sargo transited 900 miles (1,400 km) under ice over the shallow (125 to 180 feet/38 to 55 metres deep) Bering-Chukchi shelf.[36]
1960 – USS Seadragon transited the Northwest Passage under ice.[36]
1962 – Soviet November-class submarine Leninskiy Komsomol reached the north pole.[36]
1970 – USS Queenfish carried out an extensive undersea mapping survey of the Siberian continental shelf.[37]
1971 – HMS Dreadnought reached the North Pole.[36]
6 May 1986 – USS Ray, USS Archerfish and USS Hawkbill meet and surface together at the Geographic North Pole. First multi-submarine surfacing at the Pole.[citation needed]
19 May 1987 – HMS Superb joined USS Billfish and USS Sea Devil at the North Pole. The first time British and Americans met at the North Pole.[citation needed]
March 2007 – USS Alexandria participated in the Joint U.S. Navy/Royal Navy Ice Exercise 2007 (ICEX-2007) in the Arctic Ocean with the Trafalgar-class submarine HMS Tireless.[citation needed]
March 2009 – USS Annapolis took part in Ice Exercise 2009 to test submarine operability and war-fighting capability in Arctic conditions.[citation needed]
[edit]Military usage
German UC-1-class World War I submarine
Before and during World War II, the primary role of the submarine was anti-surface ship warfare. Submarines would attack either on the surface or submerged, using torpedoes or (on the surface) deck guns. They were particularly effective in sinking Allied transatlantic shipping in both World Wars, and in disrupting Japanese supply routes and naval operations in the Pacific in World War II.
Mine-laying submarines were developed in the early part of the 20th century. The facility was used in both World Wars. Submarines were also used for inserting and removing covert agents and military forces, for intelligence gathering, and to rescue aircrew during air attacks on islands, where the airmen would be told of safe places to crash-land so the submarines could rescue them. Submarines could carry cargo through hostile waters or act as supply vessels for other submarines.
Retractable 7.5 cm submarine gun produced by the Krupp company circa 1900
Submarines could usually locate and attack other submarines only on the surface, although HMS Venturer managed to sink U-864 with a four torpedo spread while both were submerged. The British developed a specialized anti-submarine submarine in WWI, the R class. After WWII, with the development of the homing torpedo, better sonar systems, and nuclear propulsion, submarines also became able to hunt each other effectively.
The development of submarine-launched ballistic missile and submarine-launched cruise missiles gave submarines a substantial and long-ranged ability to attack both land and sea targets with a variety of weapons ranging from cluster bombs to nuclear weapons.
The primary defense of a submarine lies in its ability to remain concealed in the depths of the ocean. Early submarines could be detected by the sound they made. Water is an excellent conductor of sound (much better than air), and submarines can detect and track comparatively noisy surface ships from long distances. Modern submarines are built with an emphasis on stealth. Advanced propeller designs, extensive sound-reducing insulation, and special machinery allow a submarine to be as quiet as ambient ocean noise, making them difficult to detect. It takes specialized technology to find and attack modern submarines.
A model of Günther Prien's U-47, German WWII Type VII diesel-electric hunter
Active sonar uses the reflection of sound emitted from the search equipment to detect submarines. It has been used since WWII by surface ships, submarines and aircraft (via dropped buoys and helicopter "dipping" arrays), but it gives away the position of the emitter and is susceptible to counter-measures.
A concealed military submarine is a real threat, and because of its stealth, can force an enemy navy to waste resources searching large areas of ocean and protecting ships against attack. This advantage was vividly demonstrated in the 1982 Falklands War when the British nuclear-powered submarine HMS Conqueror sank the Argentine cruiser General Belgrano. After the sinking the Argentine Navy recognised that they had no effective defense against submarine attack, and the Argentine surface fleet withdrew to port for the remainder of the war, though an Argentine submarine remained at sea.
[edit]Civil usage
Tourist submarine
Although the majority of the world's submarines are military, there are some civil submarines. They have a variety of uses, including tourism, exploration, oil and gas platform inspections and pipeline surveys. The first tourist submarine was launched in 1985, and by 1997 there were 45 of them operating around the world.[38]
Interior of a tourist sub while submerged
Submarines with a crush depth in the range of 400–500 feet (120–150 m) are operated in several areas worldwide, typically with bottom depths around 100 to 120 feet (30 to 37 m), with a carrying capacity of 50 to 100 passengers. In a typical operation (for example, Atlantis submarines), a surface vessel carries passengers to an offshore operating area, where passengers are exchanged with those of the submarine. The submarine then visits underwater points of interests, typically either natural or artificial reef structures. To surface safely without danger of collision the location of the submarine is marked with an air release and movement to the surface is coordinated by an observer in a support craft.
A recent development is the deployment of so called narco submarines by South American drug smugglers, in order to evade detection.[39] Although they occasionally deploy true submarines, most are self-propelled semi-submersibles, where a portion of the craft remains above water at all times.
[edit]Technology
[edit]Submersion and trimming
All surface ships, as well as surfaced submarines, are in a positively buoyant condition, weighing less than the volume of water they would displace if fully submerged. To submerge hydrostatically, a ship must have negative buoyancy, either by increasing its own weight or decreasing its displacement of water. To control their weight, submarines have ballast tanks, which can be filled with outside water or pressurized air.
For general submersion or surfacing, submarines use the forward and aft tanks, called Main Ballast Tanks or MBTs, which are filled with water to submerge, or filled with air to surface. Under submerged conditions, MBTs generally remain flooded, which simplifies their design, and on many submarines these tanks are a section of interhull space. For more precise and quick control of depth, submarines use smaller Depth Control Tanks or DCTs, also called hard tanks due to their ability to withstand higher pressure. The amount of water in depth control tanks can be controlled either to reflect changes in outside conditions or change depth. Depth control tanks can be located either near the submarine's center of gravity, or separated along the submarine body to prevent affecting trim.
When submerged, the water pressure on submarine's hull can reach 4 MPa (580 psi) for steel submarines and up to 10 MPa (1,500 psi) for titanium submarines like Komsomolets, while interior pressure remains relatively unchanged. This difference results in hull compression, which decreases displacement. Water density also increases with depth, as the salinity and pressure are higher, but this incompletely compensates for hull compression, so buoyancy decreases as depth increases. A submerged submarine is in an unstable equilibrium, having a tendency to either fall or float to the surface. Keeping a constant depth requires continual operation of either the depth control tanks or control surfaces.[40][41]
Submarines in a neutral buoyancy condition are not intrinsically trim-stable. To maintain desired trim, submarines use forward and aft trim tanks. Pumps can move water between these, changing weight distribution, creating a moment pointing the sub up or down. A similar system is sometimes used to maintain stability.
Sail of the French nuclear submarine Casabianca; note the diving planes, camouflaged masts, periscope, electronic warfare masts, door and windows.
The hydrostatic effect of variable ballast tanks is not the only way to control the submarine underwater. Hydrodynamic maneuvering is done by several surfaces, which can be moved to create hydrodynamic forces when a submarine moves at sufficient speed. The stern planes, located near the propeller and normally horizontal, serve the same purpose as the trim tanks, controlling the trim, and are commonly used, while other control surfaces may not be present on many submarines. The fairwater planes on the sail and/or bow planes on the main body, both also horizontal, are closer to the centre of gravity, and are used to control depth with less effect on the trim.[42]
When a submarine performs an emergency surfacing, all depth and trim methods are used simultaneously, together with propelling the boat upwards. Such surfacing is very quick, so the sub may even partially jump out of the water, potentially damaging submarine systems.
[edit]Submarine hull
Main article: Submarine hull
[edit]Overview
The US Navy Los Angeles-class attack submarine USS Greeneville in dry dock, showing typical cigar-shaped hull.
Modern submarines are cigar-shaped. This design, visible in early submarines (see below) is sometimes called a "teardrop hull". It reduces the hydrodynamic drag when submerged, but decreases the sea-keeping capabilities and increases drag while surfaced. Since the limitations of the propulsion systems of early submarines forced them to operate surfaced most of the time, their hull designs were a compromise. Because of the slow submerged speeds of those subs, usually well below 10 kt (18 km/h), the increased drag for underwater travel was acceptable. Late in World War II, when technology allowed faster and longer submerged operation and increased aircraft surveillance forced submarines to stay submerged, hull designs became teardrop shaped again to reduce drag and noise. On modern military submarines the outer hull is covered with a layer of sound-absorbing rubber, or anechoic plating, to reduce detection.
The occupied pressure hulls of deep diving submarines such as DSV Alvin are spherical instead of cylindrical. This allows a more even distribution of stress at the great depth. A titanium frame is usually affixed to the pressure hull, providing attachment for ballast and trim systems, scientific instrumentation, battery packs, syntactic flotation foam, and lighting.
A raised tower on top of a submarine accommodates the periscope and electronics masts, which can include radio, radar, electronic warfare, and other systems including the snorkel mast. In many early classes of submarines (see history), the control room, or "conn", was located inside this tower, which was known as the "conning tower". Since then, the conn has been located within the hull of the submarine, and the tower is now called the "sail". The conn is distinct from the "bridge", a small open platform in the top of the sail, used for observation during surface operation.
"Bathtubs" are related to conning towers but are used on smaller submarines. The bathtub is a metal cylinder surrounding the hatch that prevents waves from breaking directly into the cabin. It is needed because surfaced submarines have limited freeboard, that is, they lie low in the water. Bathtubs help prevent swamping the vessel.
[edit]Single/double hull
U-995, Type VIIC/41 U-Boat of WWII, showing the typical combination of ship-like non-watertight outer hull with bulky strong hull below
Modern submarines and submersibles, as well as the oldest ones, usually have a single hull. Large submarines generally have an additional hull or hull sections outside. This external hull, which actually forms the shape of submarine, is called the outer hull (casing in the Royal Navy) or light hull, as it does not have to withstand a pressure difference. Inside the outer hull there is a strong hull, or pressure hull, which withstands sea pressure and has normal atmospheric pressure inside.
As early as World War I, it was realized that the optimal shape for withstanding pressure conflicted with the optimal shape for seakeeping and minimal drag, and construction difficulties further complicated the problem. This was solved either by a compromise shape, or by using two hulls; internal for holding pressure, and external for optimal shape. Until the end of World War II, most submarines had an additional partial cover on the top, bow and stern, built of thinner metal, which was flooded when submerged. Germany went further with the Type XXI, a general predecessor of modern submarines, in which the pressure hull was fully enclosed inside the light hull, but optimized for submerged navigation, unlike earlier designs that were optimized for surface operation.
Type XXI U-Boat, late WWII, with pressure hull almost fully enclosed inside the light hull
After World War II, approaches split. The Soviet Union changed its designs, basing them on German developments. All post–World War II heavy Soviet and Russian submarines are built with a double hull structure. American and most other Western submarines switched to a primarily single-hull approach. They still have light hull sections in the bow and stern, which house main ballast tanks and provide a hydrodynamically optimized shape, but the main cylindrical hull section has only a single plating layer. The double hulls are being considered for future submarines in the United States to improve payload capacity, stealth and range.[43]
[edit]Pressure hull
The pressure hull is generally constructed of thick high strength steel with a complex structure and high strength reserve, and is separated with watertight bulkheads into several compartments. There are also examples of more than two hulls in a submarine, like the Typhoon class, which has two main pressure hulls and three smaller ones for control room, torpedoes and steering gear, with the missile launch system between the main hulls.
The dive depth cannot be increased easily. Simply making the hull thicker increases the weight and requires reduction of onboard equipment weight, ultimately resulting in a bathyscaphe. This is acceptable for civilian research submersibles, but not military submarines.
WWI submarines had hulls of carbon steel, with a 100-metre (330 ft) maximum depth. During WWII, high-strength alloyed steel was introduced, allowing 200-metre (660 ft) depths. High-strength alloy steel remains the primary material for submarines today, with 250–400-metre (820–1,300 ft) depths, which cannot be exceeded on a military submarine without design compromises. To exceed that limit, a few submarines were built with titanium hulls. Titanium can be stronger than steel, lighter, and is not ferromagnetic, important for stealth. Titanium submarines were built by the Soviet Union, which developed specialized high-strength alloys. It has produced several types of titanium submarines. Titanium alloys allow a major increase in depth, but other systems need to be redesigned to cope, so test depth was limited to 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) for the Soviet submarine Komsomolets, the deepest-diving combat submarine. An Alfa-class submarine may have successfully operated at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft),[44] though continuous operation at such depths would produce excessive stress on many submarine systems. Titanium does not flex as readily as steel, and may become brittle during many dive cycles. Despite its benefits, the high cost of titanium construction led to the abandonment of titanium submarine construction as the Cold War ended. Deep diving civilian submarines have used thick acrylic pressure hulls.
The deepest Deep Submergence Vehicle (DSV) to date is Trieste. On October 5, 1959 Trieste departed San Diego for Guam aboard the freighter Santa Maria to participate in Project Nekton, a series of very deep dives in the Mariana Trench. On January 23, 1960, Trieste reached the ocean floor in the Challenger Deep (the deepest southern part of the Mariana Trench), carrying Jacques Piccard (son of Auguste) and Lieutenant Don Walsh, USN.[45] This was the first time a vessel, manned or unmanned, had reached the deepest point in the Earth's oceans. The onboard systems indicated a depth of 11,521 metres (37,799 ft), although this was later revised to 10,916 metres (35,814 ft) and more accurate measurements made in 1995 have found the Challenger Deep to be slightly shallower, at 10,911 metres (35,797 ft).
Building a pressure hull is difficult, as it must withstand pressures at its required diving depth. When the hull is perfectly round in cross-section, the pressure is evenly distributed, and causes only hull compression. If the shape is not perfect, the hull is bent, with several points heavily strained. Inevitable minor deviations are resisted by stiffener rings, but even a one inch (25 mm) deviation from roundness results in over 30 percent decrease of maximal hydrostatic load and consequently dive depth.[46] The hull must therefore be constructed with high precision. All hull parts must be welded without defects, and all joints are checked multiple times with different methods, contributing to the high cost of modern submarines. (For example, each Virginia-class attack submarine costs US$2.6 billion, over US$200,000 per ton of displacement.)
[edit]Propulsion
HMCS Windsor, a Victoria-class diesel-electric hunter-killer submarine
Originally, submarines were human propelled. The first mechanically driven submarine was the 1863 French Plongeur, which used compressed air for propulsion. Anaerobic propulsion was first employed by the Spanish Ictineo II in 1864, which used a solution of zinc, manganese dioxide, and potassium chlorate to generate sufficient heat to power a steam engine, while also providing oxygen for the crew. A similar system was not employed again until 1940 when the German Navy tested a hydrogen peroxide-based system, the Walter turbine, on the experimental V-80 submarine and later on the naval U-791 and type XVII submarines.[47]
Until the advent of nuclear marine propulsion, most 20th century submarines used batteries for running underwater and gasoline (petrol) or diesel engines on the surface, and for battery recharging. Early submarines used gasoline, but this quickly gave way to kerosene (paraffin), then diesel, because of reduced flammability. Diesel-electric became the standard means of propulsion. The diesel or gasoline engine and the electric motor, separated by clutches, were initially on the same shaft driving the propeller. This allowed the engine to drive the electric motor as a generator to recharge the batteries and also propel the submarine. The clutch between the motor and the engine would be disengaged when the submarine dived, so that the motor could drive the propeller. The motor could have multiple armatures on the shaft, which could be electrically coupled in series for slow speed and in parallel for high speed. (These connections were called "group down" and "group up", respectively.)
[edit]Electric transmission
[edit]Diesel-electric
Early submarines used a direct mechanical connection between the engine and propeller, switching between diesel engines for surface running, and electric motors for submerged propulsion.
In 1928 the United States Navy's Bureau of Engineering proposed a diesel-electric transmission; instead of driving the propeller directly while running on the surface, the submarine's diesel would drive a generator which could either charge the submarine's batteries or drive the electric motor. This meant that motor speed was independent of the diesel engine's speed, and the diesel could run at an optimum and non-critical speed, while one or more of the diesel engines could be shut down for maintenance while the submarine continued to run using battery power. The concept was pioneered in 1929 in the S-class submarines S-3, S-6, and S-7 to test the concept. No other navy adopted the system before 1945, apart from the Royal Navy's U-class submarines, though some submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy used separate diesel generators for low speed running.[48]
Other advantages of such an arrangement were that a submarine could travel slowly with the engines at full power to recharge the batteries quickly, reducing time on the surface or on snorkel. It was then possible to insulate the noisy diesel engines from the pressure hull, making the submarine quieter. Additionally, diesel-electric transmissions were more compact.
German Type XXI submarines, also known as "Elektroboote", were the first submarines designed to operate submerged for extended periods
[edit]Air-independent propulsion
Main article: Air-independent propulsion
During the Second World War, German Type XXI submarines were designed to carry hydrogen peroxide for long-term, fast air-independent propulsion, but were ultimately built with very large batteries instead. At the end of the War, the British and Russians experimented with hydrogen peroxide/kerosene (paraffin) engines which could be used surfaced and submerged. The results were not encouraging; although the Russians deployed a class of submarines with this engine type (codenamed Quebec by NATO), they were considered unsuccessful.
German Type 212 submarine with AIP propulsion in dock at HDW/Kiel
Today several navies use air-independent propulsion. Notably Sweden uses Stirling technology on the Gotland-class and Södermanland-class submarines. The Stirling engine is heated by burning diesel fuel with liquid oxygen from cryogenic tanks. A newer development in air-independent propulsion is hydrogen fuel cells, first used on the German Type 212 submarine, with nine 34 kW or two 120 kW cells and soon to be used in the new Spanish S-80 class submarines.[49]
[edit]Nuclear power
Main article: Nuclear submarine
HMS Astute is amongst the most advanced nuclear submarines in the world.[50]
Steam power was resurrected in the 1950s with a nuclear-powered steam turbine driving a generator. By eliminating the need for atmospheric oxygen, the length of time that a modern submarine could remain submerged was limited only by its food stores, as breathing air was recycled and fresh water distilled from seawater. Nuclear-powered submarines have a relatively small battery and diesel engine/generator powerplant for emergency use if the reactors must be shut down.
Nuclear power is now used in all large submarines, but due to the high cost and large size of nuclear reactors, smaller submarines still use diesel-electric propulsion. The ratio of larger to smaller submarines depends on strategic needs. The US Navy, French Navy, and the British Royal Navy operate only nuclear submarines,[51][52] which is explained by the need for distant operations. Other major operators rely on a mix of nuclear submarines for strategic purposes and diesel-electric submarines for defence. Most fleets have no nuclear submarines, due to the limited availability of nuclear power and submarine technology.
Diesel-electric submarines have a stealth advantage over their nuclear counterparts. Nuclear submarines generate noise from coolant pumps and turbo-machinery needed to operate the reactor, even at low power levels.[53] Some nuclear submarines such as the American Ohio class can operate with their reactor coolant pumps secured, making them quieter than electric subs. A conventional submarine operating on batteries is almost completely silent, the only noise coming from the shaft bearings, propeller, and flow noise around the hull, all of which stops when the sub hovers in mid water to listen, leaving only the noise from crew activity. Commercial submarines usually rely only on batteries, since they never operate independently of a mother ship.
Several serious nuclear and radiation accidents have involved nuclear submarine mishaps.[54][55] The Soviet submarine K-19 reactor accident in 1961 resulted in 8 deaths and more than 30 other people were over-exposed to radiation.[56] The Soviet submarine K-27 reactor accident in 1968 resulted in 9 fatalities and 83 other injuries.[54] The Soviet submarine K-431 accident in 1985 resulted in 10 fatalities and 49 other people suffered radiation injuries.[55]
[edit]Alternative propulsion
Oil-fired steam turbines powered the British K-class submarines, built during the first World War and later, to give them the surface speed to keep up with the battle fleet. The K-class subs were not very successful, however.
Toward the end of the 20th century, some submarines, such as the British Vanguard class, began to be fitted with pump-jet propulsors instead of propellers. Although these are heavier, more expensive, and less efficient than a propeller, they are significantly quieter, giving an important tactical advantage.
Magnetohydrodynamic drive (MHD) was portrayed as the operating principle behind the titular submarine's nearly silent propulsion system in the film adaptation of The Hunt for Red October. However, in the novel, the Red October did not use MHD. Although experimental surface ships have used this system, speeds have been below expectations.[citation needed] In addition, the drive system can induce bubble formation, compromising stealth, and the low efficiency requires high powered reactors. These factors make it unlikely for military usage.[citation needed]
[edit]Armament
A sequence of photos showing the decommissioned Australian warship HMAS Torrens sinking after being used as a target for a submarine-launched torpedo.
The success of the submarine is inextricably linked to the development of the torpedo, invented by Robert Whitehead in 1866. His invention is essentially the same now as it was 140 years ago. Only with self propelled torpedoes could the submarine make the leap from novelty to a weapon of war. Until the perfection of the guided torpedo, multiple "straight-running" torpedoes were required to attack a target. With at most 20 to 25 torpedoes stored onboard, the number of attacks was limited. To increase combat endurance most World War I submarines functioned as submersible gunboats, using their deck guns against unarmed targets, and diving to escape and engage enemy warships. The importance of guns encouraged the development of the unsuccessful Submarine Cruiser such as the French Surcouf and the Royal Navy's X1 and M-class submarines. With the arrival of ASW aircraft, guns became more for defense than attack. A more practical method of increasing combat endurance was the external torpedo tube, loaded only in port.
The forward torpedo tubes in HMS Ocelot
The ability of submarines to approach enemy harbours covertly led to their use as minelayers. Minelaying submarines of World War I and World War II were specially built for that purpose. Modern submarine-laid mines, such as the British Mark 6 Sea Urchin, are designed to be deployed by a submarine's torpedo tubes.
After World War II, both the US and the USSR experimented with submarine launched cruise missiles such as the SSM-N-8 Regulus and P-5 Pyatyorka. Such missiles required the submarine to surface to fire its missiles. They were the forerunners of modern submarine launched cruise missiles, which can be fired from the torpedo tubes of submerged submarines, for example the US BGM-109 Tomahawk and Russian RPK-2 Viyuga and versions of surface to surface anti-ship missiles such as the Exocet and Harpoon, encapsulated for submarine launch. Ballistic missiles can also be fired from a submarine's torpedo tubes, for example missiles such as the anti-submarine SUBROC. With internal volume as limited as ever and the desire to carry heavier warloads, the idea of the external launch tube was revived, usually for encapsulated missiles, with such tubes being placed between the internal pressure and outer streamlined hulls.
The strategic mission of the SSM-N-8 and the P-5 were taken up by submarine-launched ballistic missile beginning with the US Navy's Polaris missile, and subsequently the Poseidon and Trident missiles.
Germany is working on the short-range IDAS (missile) which is launched from a torpedo tube and can be used against ASW helicopters as well as surface ships and coastal targets.
[edit]Sensors
A submarine will have a variety of sensors determined by its missions. Modern military submarines rely almost entirely on a suite of passive and active sonars to find their prey. Active sonar relies on an audible "ping" to generate echoes to reveal objects around the submarine. Active systems are rarely used, as doing so reveals the sub's presence. Passive sonar is a set of sensitive hydrophones set into the hull or trailed in a towed array, generally several hundred feet long. The towed array is the mainstay of NATO submarine detection systems, as it reduces the flow noise heard by operators. Hull mounted sonar is employed to back up the towed array, and in confined waters where a towed array could be fouled by obstacles.
Submarines also carry radar equipment for detection of surface ships and aircraft. Sub captains are more likely to use radar detection gear rather than active radar to detect targets, as radar can be detected far beyond its own return range, revealing the submarine. Periscopes are rarely used, except for position fixes and to verify a contact's identity.
Civilian submarines, such as the DSV Alvin or the Russian Mir submersibles, rely on small active sonar sets and viewing ports to navigate. Sunlight does not penetrate below about 300 feet (91 m) underwater, so high intensity lights are used to illuminate the viewing area.
[edit]Navigation
Main article: Submarine navigation
The larger search periscope, and the smaller, less detectable attack periscope on HMS Ocelot
Early submarines had few navigation aids, but modern subs have a variety of navigation systems. Modern military submarines use an inertial guidance system for navigation while submerged, but drift error unavoidably builds up over time. To counter this, the Global Positioning System will occasionally be used to obtain an accurate position. The periscope - a retractable tube with prisms allowing a view to the surface - is only used occasionally in modern submarines, since the range of visibility is short. The Virginia-class submarines and Astute-class submarines have photonics masts rather than hull-penetrating optical periscopes. These masts must still be hoisted above the surface, and employ electronic sensors for visible light, infrared, laser range-finding, and electromagnetic surveillance. One benefit to hoisting the mast above the surface is that while the mast is above the water the entire sub is still below the water and is much harder to detect visibly or by radar.
[edit]Communication
Main article: Communication with submarines
Military submarines have several systems for communicating with distant command centers or other ships. One is VLF (Very Low Frequency) radio, which can reach a submarine either on the surface or submerged to a fairly shallow depth, usually less than 250 feet (76 m). ELF (Extremely Low Frequency) can reach a submarine at much greater depths, but has a very low bandwidth and are generally used to call a submerged sub to a shallower depth where VLF signals can reach. A submarine also has the option of floating a long, buoyant wire antenna to a shallower depth, allowing VLF transmissions to be made by a deeply submerged boat.
By extending a radio mast, a submarine can also use a "burst transmission" technique. A burst transmission takes only a fraction of a second, minimizing a submarine's risk of detection.
To communicate with other submarines, a system known as Gertrude is used. Gertrude is basically a sonar telephone. Voice communication from one submarine is transmitted by low power speakers into the water, where it is detected by passive sonars on the receiving submarine. The range of this system is probably very short, and using it radiates sound into the water, which can be heard by the enemy.
Civilian submarines can use similar, albeit less powerful systems to communicate with support ships or other submersibles in the area.
[edit]Crew
A typical nuclear submarine has a crew of over 80. Non-nuclear boats typically have fewer than half as many. The conditions on a submarine can be difficult because crew members must work in isolation for long periods of time, without family contact. Submarines normally maintain radio silence to avoid detection. Operating a submarine is dangerous, even in peacetime, and many submarines have been lost in accidents.
[edit]Women as part of crew
Most navies prohibited women from serving on submarines, even after they had been permitted to serve on surface warships. The Royal Norwegian Navy became the first navy to allow female crew on its submarines in 1985. The Royal Danish Navy allowed female submariners in 1988.[57] Others followed suit including the Swedish Navy (1989),[58] the Royal Australian Navy (1998), the German Navy (2001) and the Canadian Navy (2002). In 1995, Solveig Krey of the Royal Norwegian Navy became the first female officer to assume command on a military submarine, HNoMS Kobben.[59]
The British Royal Navy does not permit women to serve on its submarines because of "medical concerns for the safety of the fetus and hence its mother" due to the potentially compromised air quality onboard submarines.[60] Similar dangers to the pregnant woman and her fetus barred females from submarine service in Sweden 1983, when all other positions were made available for them in the Swedish Navy. Pregnant women are still not allowed to serve on submarines in Sweden. However, the policy makers thought that it was discriminatory with a general ban and demanded that females should be tried on their individual merits and have their suitability evaluated and compared to other candidates. Further, they noted that a female complying with such high demands is unlikely to become pregnant unawares.[58]
Women have served on U.S. Navy surface ships since 1993, and as of 2011-2012 will begin serving on submarines for the first time. Until presently, the Navy only allowed three exceptions for women being on board military submarines: female civilian technicians for a few days at most, women midshipmen on an overnight during summer training for both Navy ROTC and Naval Academy, and family members for one-day dependent cruises.[61] In 2009, senior officials, including then-Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus, Joint Chief of Staff Admiral Michael Mullen, and Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Gary Roughead, began the process of finding a way to implement females onboard submarines.[62] In 2011, the first classes of female submarine officers graduated from Naval Submarine School's Submarine Officer Basic Course (SOBC) at the Naval Submarine Base New London.[63] Additionally, more senior ranking and experienced female supply officers from the surface warfare specialty will attend SOBC as well, and proceed to fleet Ballistic Missile (SSBN) and Guided Missile (SSGN) submarines along with the new female submarine line officers beginning in late 2011/early 2012.[64]
Both the U.S. and British navies operate nuclear-powered submarines which deploy for periods of six months or longer, whereas the other navies that do permit women to serve on submarines operate conventionally powered submarines, which deploy for much shorter periods, usually only for one or two months.[65] Prior the recent change by the U.S., no nation using nuclear submarines permitted women to serve onboard them.[66]
[edit]Life support systems
With nuclear power, submarines can remain submerged for months at a time. Diesel submarines must periodically resurface or snorkel to recharge their batteries. Most modern military submarines generate breathing oxygen by electrolysis of water. Atmosphere control equipment includes a CO2 scrubber, which uses an amine absorbent to remove the gas from air and diffuse it into waste pumped overboard. A machine that uses a catalyst to convert carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide (removed by the CO2 scrubber) and bonds hydrogen produced from the ship's storage battery with oxygen in the atmosphere to produce water, is also used. An atmosphere monitoring system samples the air from different areas of the ship for nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, R-12 and R-114 refrigerants, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other gases. Poisonous gases are removed, and oxygen is replenished by use of an oxygen bank located in a main ballast tank. Some heavier submarines have two oxygen bleed stations (forward and aft). The oxygen in the air is sometimes kept a few percent less than atmospheric concentration to reduce fire danger.
Fresh water is produced by either an evaporator or a reverse osmosis unit. The primary use for fresh water is to provide feed water for the reactor and steam propulsion plants. It is also available for showers, sinks, cooking and cleaning once propulsion plant needs have been met. Seawater is used to flush toilets, and the resulting "black water" is stored in a sanitary tank until it is blown overboard using pressurized air or pumped overboard by using a special sanitary pump. The method for blowing sanitaries overboard is difficult to operate, and the German Type VIIC boat U-1206 was lost with casualties because of a mistake with the toilet.[67] Water from showers and sinks is stored separately in "grey water" tanks, which are pumped overboard using the drain pump.
Trash on modern large submarines is usually disposed of using a tube called a Trash Disposal Unit (TDU), where it is compacted into a galvanized steel can. At the bottom of the TDU is a large ball valve. An ice plug is set on top of the ball valve to protect it, the cans atop the ice plug. The top breech door is shut, and the TDU is flooded and equalized with sea pressure, the ball valve is opened and the cans fall out assisted by scrap iron weights in the cans. The TDU is also flushed with seawater to ensure it is completely empty and the ball valve is clear before shutting the valve.
[edit]See also
Submarine portal
DeepFlight Super Falcon, an experimental sub with hydrofoils in 2004
Autonomous underwater vehicle
Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle
List by death toll of ships sunk by submarines
List of countries with submarines
List of submarine actions
List of submarine museums
List of sunken nuclear submarines
Merchant submarine
Submarines in the United States Navy
Submarine films
Submarine simulator, a computer game genre
Submarine warfare
Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory (United States)
Category:Fictional submarines
[edit]Related topics
Depth charge
Timeline of underwater technology
Modern Naval tactics
Nuclear navy
Submarine communications cable
Submarine power cable
Submersible
Semi-submersible
Submarine Voyage
Midget submarine
[edit]Articles on specific vessels
List of submarines of the Royal Navy
List of submarines of the United States Navy
List of ships of the Soviet Navy#Submarines
Submarines of the People's Liberation Army Navy (China)
Submarines of the Indian Navy
List of U-boats
[edit]Articles on specific submarine classes
List of Soviet and Russian submarine classes
List of submarine classes
List of submarine classes of the Royal Navy
List of United States submarine classes
[edit]References
^ Inventor of the Week: Archive. mit.edu
^ Submarino Hipopótamo: http://www.armada.mil.ec/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=44
^ Hipopotamo submarine: Scale model at the Museum of Maritime History of the Ecuadorian Navy; http://www.digeim.armada.mil.ec/index.php?option=com_phocagallery&view=category&id=9:submarino-qhipopotamoq&Itemid=12
^ Showell p. 23
^ Chuck Veit "The Innovative Mysterious Alligator" page 26 US Naval Institute NAVAL HISTORY published August 2010 ISSN 1042-1920
^ Friends of the Hunley
^ H.L. Hunley
^ a b John Pike. "Globalsecurity". Globalsecurity. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ "Submarine Heritage Centre - submarine history of Barrow-in-Furness". Submarineheritage.com. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ Humble, Richard (1981). Underwater warfare. Chartwell Books, p. 174. ISBN 0890094241
^ "French Sub Gymnote". battleships-cruisers.co.uk. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
^ Simmons p. 107
^ a b c Jentschura p. 160
^ Showell p. 201
^ a b Showell p. 29
^ Watts p. 18, 21
^ U.S. Patent 708,553
^ Olender p. 175
^ Showell p. 36
^ Thomas Adam. Germany and the Americas. p. 1155.
^ Gibson and Prendergast, p. 2
^ Roger Chickering, Stig Förster, Bernd Greiner, German Historical Institute (Washington, D.C.) (2005). "A world at total war: global conflict and the politics of destruction, 1937-1945". Cambridge University Press. p.73. ISBN 0521834325
^ Crocker III, H. W. (2006). Don't Tread on Me. New York: Crown Forum. p. 310. ISBN 9781400053636.
^ Blair, p.576.
^ Blair, pp.767-768; O'Kane, Clear the Bridge.
^ Blair, passim.
^ a b c O'Kane, p. 333.
^ Blair, Clay, Jr. Silent Victory, pp. 991-2. The others were lost to accidents or, in the case of Seawolf, friendly fire.
^ Less the crews of S-26, R-12, and possibly Dorado lost to accident, and Seawolf, to friendly fire. S-36 and Darter, lost to grounding, took no casualties. Blair, passim.
^ a b c Blair, p.878.
^ "Submarine History". The Royal Navy. Retrieved 18 April 2007.[dead link]
^ History of USS Nautilus SSN571[dead link]
^ Tony Long. "May 10, 1960: USS ''Triton'' Completes First Submerged Circumnavigation". Wired.com. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ LYDIA POLGREEN (July 26, 2009). "India Launches Nuclear Submarine". New York Times.
^ Joe Lynam (2010-05-20). "'North Korean torpedo' sank South's navy ship - report". BBC News. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p McLaren, Alfred S., CAPT USN "Under the Ice in Submarines" United States Naval Institute Proceedings July 1981 pp.105-109
^ William J. Broad (March 18, 2008). "Queenfish: A Cold War Tale". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-02-17.
^ David Bruce Weaver (2001). The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism. CABI. p. 276. ISBN 0851993680.
^ Booth, William; Forero, Juan (2009-06-06). "Plying the Pacific, Subs Surface as Key Tool of Drug Cartels". The Washington Post.
^ "Physics Of Liquids & Gases". Elementary Classical Physics. Retrieved 2006-10-07.
^ Richard O'Kane (1987). Wahoo. Presidio Press. p. 12.
^ Roy Burcher, Louis Rydill (1995). Concepts In Submarine Design. Cambridge University Press. p. 170.
^ [1]. National Defense magazine.[dead link]
^ "Federation of American Scientists". Fas.org. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ "Trieste". History.navy.mil. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ US Naval Academy
^ "Details on German U-Boat Types". Sharkhunters International. Retrieved 2008-09-21.
^ Friedman, Norman (1995). [1557502633 U.S. submarines through 1945: an illustrated design history]. Naval Institute Press. pp. 259–260.
^ "S-80: A Sub, for Spain, to Sail Out on the Main". Defense Industry Daily. 15-Dec-2008.
^ Milligan, Brian (2007-05-07). "Alien submarine breaks technical barriers". BBC News. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ "Submarine Warfare". Archived from the original on 2006-10-11. Retrieved 2006-10-07.
^ "France Current Capabilities". Nti.org. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ Thompson, Roger (2007). Lessons Not Learned. US Naval Institute Press. p. 34. ISBN 9781591148654.
^ a b Johnston, Robert (September 23, 2007). "Deadliest radiation accidents and other events causing radiation casualties". Database of Radiological Incidents and Related Events.
^ a b The Worst Nuclear Disasters
^ Strengthening the Safety of Radiation Sources p. 14.
^ "NATO Review - Vol.49 - No 2 - Summer 2001: Women in uniform". Nato.int. 2001-08-31. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ a b "Historik" (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 1996-01-01.
^ "Forsvarsnett: Historikk" (in Norwegian). Archived from the original on 1996-01-01.
^ Royal Navy. "More Submarine FAQs".
^ question #10[dead link]
^ William H. McMichael and Andrew Scutro (September 27, 2009). "SecNav, CNO: Women should serve on subs". Navy Times.
^ http://www.ct.gov/oma/cwp/view.asp?a=3422&q=483312
^ http://www.navy.mil/search/display.asp?story_id=52990
^ "Commander of the Submarine Fleet".
^ "Navy Seeks to Allow Women to Serve on Submarines". Washingtonpost.com. September 26, 2009. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
^ "U-1206". Uboat.net. Retrieved 2010-04-18.
[edit]Bibliography
General history
Histoire des sous-marins: des origines à nos jours by Jean-Marie Mathey and Alexandre Sheldon-Duplaix. (Boulogne-Billancourt: ETAI, 2002).
Culture
Redford, Duncan. The Submarine: A Cultural History From the Great War to Nuclear Combat (I.B. Tauris, 2010) 322 pages; focus on British naval and civilian understandings of submarine warfare, including novels and film.
Submarines before 1914
Gardiner, Robert (1992). Steam, Steel and Shellfire, The steam warship 1815-1905. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 9781557507747. OCLC 30038068.
1900/Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905
Jentschura, Hansgeorg; Dieter Jung, Peter Mickel (1977). Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy 1869-1945. Annapolis, Maryland: United State Naval Institute. ISBN 0-87021-893-X.
Olender, Piotr (2010). Russo-Japanese Naval War 1904-1905 Vol. 2 Battle of Tsushima. Sandomierz 1, Poland: Stratus s.c.. ISBN 978-83-61421-02-3.
Showell, Jak (2006). The U-Boat Century-German Submarine Warfare 1906-2006. Great Britain: Chatham Publishing. ISBN 1-86176241-0.
Simmons, Jacques (1971). A Grosset All-Color Guide WARSHIPS. United States: Grosset & Dunlap, Inc.. ISBN 0-448-04165-0.
Watts, Anthony J. (1990). The Imperial Russian Navy. London: Arms and Armour Press. ISBN 0-85368-912-1.
World War II
Blair, Clay (1975). Silent Victory: The U.S. Submarine War Against Japan. Philadelphia: Lippincott. ISBN 9780397007530. OCLC 821363.
Lockwood, Charles A. (1951). Sink 'Em All: Submarine Warfare in the Pacific. New York: Dutton. OCLC 1371626.
O'Kane, Richard H. (1977). Clear the Bridge!: The War Patrols of the USS Tang. Chicago: Rand McNally. ISBN 9780528810589. OCLC 2965421.
O'Kane, Richard H. (1987). Wahoo: The Patrols of America's Most Famous World War II Submarine. Novato, California: Presidio Press. ISBN 9780891413011. OCLC 15366413.
Werner, Herbert A. (1999). Iron coffins: a personal account of the German U-Boat battles of World War II. London: Cassell Military. ISBN 9780304353309. OCLC 41466905.
Cold War
Hide and seek: the untold story of Cold War espionage at sea, by Peter Huchthausen and Alexandre Sheldon-Duplaix. (Hoboken, NJ: J. Wiley & Sons, 2008).
[edit]External links
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The Fleet Type Submarine Online US Navy submarine training manuals, 1944-1946.
The Home Front: Manitowoc County in World War II: Video footage of submarine launches into Lake Michigan during World War II.
American Society of Safety Engineers. Journal of Professional Safety. Submarine Accidents: A 60-Year Statistical Assessment. C. Tingle. Sept. 2009. Pages 31–39. Ordering full article: https://www.asse.org/professionalsafety/indexes/2009.php; or Reproduction less graphics/tables: http://www.allbusiness.com/government/government-bodies-offices-government/12939133-1.html.
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