Oct.20.in history..Wikipaedia

<< October 2011 >> Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 MMXI October 20 in recent years   2011 (Thursday)   2010 (Wednesday)   2009 (Tuesday)   2008 (Monday)   2007 (Saturday)   2006 (Friday)   2005 (Thursday)   2004 (Wednesday)   2003 (Monday)   2002 (Sunday) October 20 is the 293rd day of the year (294th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. There are 72 days remaining until the end of the year. Contents  [hide]  1 Events 2 Births 3 Deaths 4 Holidays and observances 5 External links [edit]Events 1548 – The city of Nuestra Señora de La Paz (Our Lady of Peace) is founded by Alonso de Mendoza by appointment of the king of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V. 1720 – Caribbean pirate Calico Jack is captured by the Royal Navy. 1740 – Maria Theresa takes the throne of Austria. France, Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony refuse to honour the Pragmatic Sanction and the War of the Austrian Succession begins. 1781 – Patent of Toleration, providing limited freedom of worship, is approved in Habsburg Monarchy. 1803 – The United States Senate ratifies the Louisiana Purchase. 1818 – The Convention of 1818 signed between the United States and the United Kingdom which, among other things, settled the Canada – United States border on the 49th parallel for most of its length. 1827 – Battle of Navarino – a combined Turkish and Egyptian armada is defeated by British, French, and Russian naval force in the port of Navarino in Pylos, Greece. 1873 – Yale, Princeton, Columbia, and Rutgers universities draft the first code of American football rules. 1883 – Peru and Chile sign the Treaty of Ancón, by which the Tarapacá province is ceded to the latter, bringing an end to Peru's involvement in the War of the Pacific. 1904 – Chile and Bolivia sign the Treaty of Peace and Friendship, delimiting the border between the two countries. 1910 – The hull of the RMS Olympic, sister-ship to the ill-fated RMS Titanic, is launched from the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast, Northern Ireland. 1917 – The Military Revolutionary Committee of the Petrograd Soviet, in charge of preparation and carrying out the Russian Revolution, holds its first meeting. 1935 – The Long March ends. 1939 – Pope Pius XII publishes his first major encyclical entitled Summi Pontificatus. 1941 – World War II: Thousands of civilians in Kragujevac in German-occupied Serbia are killed in the Kragujevac massacre. 1943 – The cargo vessel Sinfra is attacked by Allied aircraft at Suda Bay, Crete, and sunk. 2,098 Italian prisoners of war drown with it. 1944 – The Soviet Army and Yugoslav Partisans liberate Belgrade, the capital of Yugoslavia 1944 – Liquid natural gas leaks from storage tanks in Cleveland, then explodes; the explosion and resulting fire level 30 blocks and kill 130. 1944 – General Douglas MacArthur fulfills his promise to return to the Philippines when he commands an Allied assault on the islands, reclaiming them from the Japanese during the Second World War. 1947 – The House Un-American Activities Committee begins its investigation into Communist infiltration of Hollywood, resulting in a blacklist that prevents some from working in the industry for years. 1947 – United States of America and Pakistan establish diplomatic relations for the first time. 1951 – The "Johnny Bright Incident" occurs in Stillwater, Oklahoma 1952 – Governor Evelyn Baring declares a state of emergency in Kenya and begins arresting hundreds of suspected leaders of the Mau Mau Uprising, including Jomo Kenyatta, the future first President of Kenya. 1961 – The Soviet Union performs the first armed test of a submarine-launched ballistic missile, launching an R-13 from a Golf class submarine. 1962 – China launches simultaneous offensives in Ladakh and across the McMahon Line, beginning the Sino-Indian War. 1967 – A purported bigfoot is filmed by Patterson and Gimlin. 1968 – Former First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy marries Greek shipping tycoon Aristotle Onassis. 1970 – Siad Barre declares Somalia a socialist state. 1971 – The Nepal Stock Exchange collapses. 1973 – "Saturday Night Massacre": President Richard Nixon fires U.S. Attorney General Elliot Richardson and Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus after they refuse to fire Watergate special prosecutor Archibald Cox, who is finally fired by Robert Bork. 1973 – The Sydney Opera House opens. 1976 – The ferry George Prince is struck by a ship while crossing the Mississippi River between Destrehan and Luling, Louisiana. Seventy-eight passengers and crew die and only 18 people aboard the ferry survive. 1977 – A plane carrying Lynyrd Skynyrd crashes in Mississippi, killing lead singer Ronnie Van Zant and guitarist Steve Gaines along with backup singer Cassie Gaines, the road manager, pilot, and co-pilot. 1981 – Two police officers and an armored car guard are killed during an armed robbery in Rockland County, NY, carried out by members of the Black Liberation Army and Weather Underground. 1982 – During the UEFA Cup match between FC Spartak Moscow and HFC Haarlem, 66 people are crushed to death in the Luzhniki disaster. 1991 – The Oakland Hills firestorm kills 25 and destroys 3,469 homes and apartments, causing more than $2 billion in damage. 1991 – A 6.8 Mw earthquake strikes the Uttarkashi region of India, killing more than 1,000 people. 2011 – Muammar Gaddafi is killed. 2011 – ETA announced a "definitive cessation of its armed activities". [edit]Births 1463 – Alessandro Achillini, Italian philosopher (d. 1512) 1496 – Claude, Duke of Guise, French soldier (d. 1550) 1616 – Thomas Bartholin, Danish physician, mathematician, and theologian (d. 1680) 1620 – Aelbert Cuyp, Dutch painter (d. 1691) 1632 – Sir Christopher Wren, English architect (d. 1723) 1656 – Nicolas de Largillière, French painter (d. 1746) 1660 – Robert Bertie, 1st Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven, English statesman (d. 1723) 1677 – Stanisław I Leszczyński, King of Poland (d. 1766) 1700 – Charlotte Aglaé of Orléans, Duchess of Modena (d. 1761) 1711 – Timothy Ruggles, American politician (d. 1795) 1719 – Gottfried Achenwall, German statistician (d. 1772) 1740 – Isabelle de Charrière, Dutch writer (d. 1805) 1759 – Chauncey Goodrich, American politician (d. 1815) 1780 – Pauline Bonaparte, sister of Napoleon Bonaparte (d. 1825) 1784 – Henry Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston, British statesman (d. 1865) 1785 – George Ormerod, British historian and antiquarian (d. 1873) 1801 – Melchior Berri, Swiss architect (d. 1854) 1808 – Karl Andree, German geographer (d. 1875) 1819 – Báb, Persian founder of Bábism and a central figure in the Bahá'í Faith (d. 1850) 1819 – Carl Mikuli, Polish pianist (d. 1897) 1822 – Thomas Hughes, English novelist (d. 1896) 1832 – Constantin Lipsius, German architect (d. 1894) 1854 – Arthur Rimbaud, French poet (d. 1891) 1858 – John Burns, English politician (d. 1943) 1859 – John Dewey, American philosopher (d. 1952) 1864 – James F. Hinkle, American politician (d. 1951) 1873 – Nellie McClung, Canadian feminist (d. 1951) 1874 – Charles Ives, American composer (d. 1954) 1882 – Bela Lugosi, Hungarian-born American actor (d. 1956) 1889 – Margaret Dumont, American actress (d. 1965) 1891 – James Chadwick, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1974) 1891 – Jomo Kenyatta, Kenyan politician (d. 1978) 1893 – Charley Chase, American comedian (d. 1940) 1894 – Olive Thomas, American actress (d. 1920) 1895 – Rex Ingram, American actor (d. 1969) 1897 – Crown Prince Euimin of Korea (d. 1970) 1900 – Wayne Morse, American politician (d. 1974) 1904 – Anna Neagle, English actress (d. 1986) 1904 – Tommy Clement Douglas, Canadian politician (d. 1986) 1905 – Arnold Luhaäär, Estonian weightlifter (d. 1965) 1905 – Frederic Dannay, American novelist (d. 1982) 1907 – Arlene Francis, American actress and television personality (d. 2001) 1909 – Sugiyama Yasushi, Japanese painter (d. 1993) 1909 – Carla Laemmle, American actress 1910 – Bob Sheppard, American sports public address announcer (d. 2010) 1913 – Grandpa Jones, American banjo player and singer (d. 1998) 1913 – J. Michael Hagopian, Turkish-born American documentarian (d. 2010) 1914 – Fayard Nicholas, American dancer (d. 2006) 1917 – Jean-Pierre Melville, French director (d. 1973) 1918 – Robert Lochner, German journalist (d. 2003) 1919 – Tracy Hall, American inventor (d. 2008) 1921 – Hans Warren, Dutch writer (d. 2001) 1922 – John Anderson, American actor (d. 1992) 1923 – Robert Craft, American conductor 1925 – Art Buchwald, American humorist (d. 2007) 1925 – Tom Dowd, American recording engineer (d. 2002) 1925 – Roger Hanin, French actor 1927 – Gunturu Seshendra Sarma, Indian poet (d. 2007) 1931 – Richard Caliguiri, American politician (d. 1988) 1931 – Mickey Mantle, American baseball player (d. 1995) 1932 – Rosey Brown, American football player (d. 2004) 1932 – William Christopher, American actor 1934 – Bill Chase, American trumpet player (d. 1974) 1934 – Eddie Harris, American jazz saxophonist (d. 1996) 1934 – Empress Michiko of Japan 1935 – Jerry Orbach, American actor (d. 2004) 1935 – Barrie Chase, American dancer 1937 – Juan Marichal, Dominican baseball player 1937 – Wanda Jackson, American rock and rockabilly singer 1938 – Iain Macmillan, Scottish photographer (d. 2006) 1940 – Kathy Kirby, British singer (d. 2011) 1940 – Robert Pinsky, American poet and Poet Laureate of the United States 1942 – Earl Hindman, American actor (d. 2003) 1942 – Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard, German biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1942 – Bart Zoet, Dutch cyclist (d. 1992) 1943 – Dunja Vejzovic, Croatian soprano 1944 – David Mancuso, American disc jockey 1944 – Nalin de Silva, Sri Lankan theoretical physicist and political analyst 1946 – Lewis Grizzard, American writer and humorist (d. 1994) 1946 – Elfriede Jelinek, Austrian writer, Nobel Prize laureate 1946 – Richard Loncraine, British film director 1946 – Lucien Van Impe, Belgian cyclist 1948 – Piet Hein Donner, Dutch politician and minister 1948 – Melih Gökçek, Turkish politician 1950 – Tom Petty, American musician 1951 – Patrick Hall, British politician 1951 – Leif Pagrotsky, Swedish politician 1951 – Claudio Ranieri, Italian football player and manager 1951 – Ken Ham, Australian evangelist and businessman 1951 – Al Greenwood, American rock musician (Foreigner) 1952 – Melanie Mayron, American actress 1953 – Keith Hernandez, American baseball player 1953 – Bill Nunn, American actor 1954 – Steve Orich, American composer 1954 – Günter Müller, German percussionist 1955 – Robert ten Brink, Dutch TV personality and actor 1955 – Thomas Newman, American composer 1955 – David Profumo, English novelist 1955 – Aaron Pryor, American boxer 1956 – Danny Boyle, English film director 1957 – Susanna Haavisto, Finnish actress and singer 1957 – Hilda Solis, American politician 1957 – Chris Cowdrey, English cricketer 1958 – Valerie Faris, American film director 1958 – Lynn Flewelling, American fantasy author 1958 – Scott Hall, American professional wrestler 1958 – Mark King, English musician and singer (Level 42) 1958 – Dave Krieg, American football player 1958 – Viggo Mortensen, American actor 1958 – Ivo Pogorelic, Croatian pianist 1958 – Dave Finlay, Irish professional wrestler 1959 – Mark Little, Australian actor and comedian 1960 – Konstantin Aseev, Russian chess player (d. 2004) 1960 – Lepa Brena, Yugoslav singer 1961 – Ian Rush, Welsh footballer 1961 – Michie Tomizawa, Japanese voice actress 1962 – David M. Evans, American screenwriter and film director 1962 – Dave Wong, Hong Kong/Taiwanese singer-songwriter 1963 – Julie Payette, Canadian astronaut 1963 – Nikos Tsiantakis, Greek footballer 1963 – Stan Valckx, Dutch retired footballer and general football manager 1965 – Norman Blake, Scottish musician 1965 – Jil Caplan, French singer and songwriter 1965 – Mikhail Shtalenkov, Russian ice hockey player 1965 – William Zabka, American actor 1966 – Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, Jordanian militant and Al-Qaeda figure (d. 2006) 1966 – Allan Donald, South African cricketer 1966 – Fred Coury, American drummer (Cinderella) 1966 – Stefan Raab, German entertainer 1966 – Patrick Volkerding, American computer operating systems developer 1967 – Luigi Lo Cascio, Italian actor 1967 – Elizabeth Carling, English actress and singer 1967 – Luck Mervil, Québécois actor and singer 1967 – Marco Ngai, Hong Kong actor 1968 – Susan Tully, English actress (Eastenders) 1969 – Juan González, Puerto Rican baseball player 1969 – Laurie Daley, Australian rugby league footballer 1969 – Lambros Papakostas, Greek high jumper 1970 – Chavo Guerrero, Jr., American professional wrestler 1970 – Michelle Malkin, American political commentator and author 1970 – Sander Boschker, Dutch footballer 1971 – Dannii Minogue, Australian singer 1971 – Snoop Dogg, American rapper 1971 – Matt Norman, Australian director/producer 1971 – Eddie Jones, American basketball player 1971 – Kamiel Maase, Dutch long-distance runner 1972 – Pie Geelen, Dutch swimmer 1972 – Will Greenwood, England rugby union player 1976 – Nikolaos Bacharidis, Greek footballer 1976 – Tom Wisniewski, American guitarist (MxPx) 1976 – Nicola Legrottaglie, Italian footballer 1977 – Matt Jansen, English footballer 1977 – Leila Josefowicz, Canadian classical violinist 1977 – Sam Witwer, American actor 1978 – Virender Sehwag, Indian cricketer 1978 – Paul Wilson, Scottish bass player (Snow Patrol) 1979 – Paul Ifill, Barbadian footballer 1979 – John Krasinski, American actor 1979 – Paul O'Connell, Irish rugby player 1980 – Gary Jarman, English musician 1980 – Niall Matter, Canadian actor 1980 – Jose Veras, Dominican baseball player 1981 – Willis McGahee, American football player 1981 – Dimitrios Papadopoulos, Greek footballer 1981 – Francisco Javier Rodríguez, Mexican footballer 1982 – Yasser Al-Qahtani, Saudi footballer 1982 – Kristian Bak Nielsen, Dutch footballer 1982 – Becky Brewerton, Welsh golfer 1983 – Luis Saritama, Ecuadorian footballer 1983 – Takayuki Yamada, Japanese actor 1984 – Florent Sinama-Pongolle, French footballer 1984 – Andrew Trimble, Northern Irish rugby player 1985 – Jennifer Nicole Freeman, American actress 1985 – Alphonso Smith, American football player 1985 – Dominic McGuire, American basketball player 1985 – James Sutton, British racing driver 1986 – Priyanka Sharma, Indian actress 1986 – Wanlop Saechio, Thai Port football player 1987 – Raphael Hackl, German rugby player 1988 – Risa Niigaki, Japanese singer (Morning Musume) 1988 – Candice Swanepoel, South African model 1989 – Colin Wilson, Canadian-American ice hockey player 1992 – Ksenia Semenova, Russian gymnast 1994 – Morgan Featherstone, Australian model 1995 – Zhenwei Wang, Chinese actor and martial artist [edit]Deaths 460 – Aelia Eudocia, Byzantine Empress 1139 – Henry X, Duke of Bavaria 1570 – João de Barros, Portuguese historian (b. 1496) 1631 – Michael Maestlin, German astronomer and mathematician (b. 1550) 1640 – John Ball, English Puritan clergyman (b. 1585) 1652 – Antonio Coello, Spanish writer (b. 1611) 1713 – Archibald Pitcairne, Scottish physician (b. 1652) 1740 – Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1685) 1842 – Grace Darling, English heroine (b. 1815) 1865 – Champ Ferguson, Confederate guerrilla (b. 1821) 1870 – Michael William Balfe, Irish composer (b. 1808) 1890 – Sir Richard Francis Burton, British explorer and writer (b. 1821) 1900 – Naim Frashëri, Albanian poet (b. 1846) 1907 – Said Pasha Kurd, Kurdish statesman (b. 1834) 1910 – David B. Hill, Governor of New York (b. 1843) 1926 – Eugene Debs, American labor leader and Socialist presidential candidate (b. 1855) 1935 – Arthur Henderson, Scottish politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1863) 1936 – Anne Sullivan, American teacher (b. 1866) 1940 – Gunnar Asplund, Swedish architect (b. 1885) 1953 – Werner Baumbach, German bomber pilot (b. 1916) 1957 – Michalis Dorizas, Greek Olympic medalist (b. 1890) 1964 – Herbert Hoover, 31st President of the United States (b. 1874) 1967 – Yoshida Shigeru, Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1878) 1968 – Bud Flanagan, British wartime entertainer (b. 1896) 1972 – Harlow Shapley, American astronomer (b. 1885) 1977 – Members of the American rock group Lynyrd Skynyrd killed in a plane crash: Cassie Gaines (b. 1948) Steve Gaines (b. 1949) Ronnie Van Zant (b. 1948) 1978 – Gunnar Nilsson, Swedish race car driver (b. 1948) 1983 – Peter Dudley, British actor (b. 1935) 1983 – Yves Thériault, French Canadian author (b. 1915) 1984 – Carl Ferdinand Cori, Austrian-born biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1896) 1984 – Paul Dirac, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1902) 1987 – Andrey Kolmogorov, Russian mathematician (b. 1903) 1988 – Sheila Scott, English aviatrix (b. 1922) 1989 – Anthony Quayle, English actor (b. 1913) 1990 – Joel McCrea, American actor (b. 1905) 1992 – Werner Torkanowsky, German conductor (b. 1926) 1993 – Sugiyama Yasushi, Japanese painter (b. 1909) 1994 – Burt Lancaster, American actor (b. 1913) 1995 – Christopher Stone, American actor (b. 1942) 1999 – Calvin Griffith, Former owner of Washington Senators/Minnesota Twins (b. 1911) 1999 – Jack Lynch, Taoiseach of Ireland (b. 1917) 2001 – Ted Ammon, American financier (b. 1949) 2002 – Barbara Berjer, American actress (b. 1920) 2002 – Bernard Fresson, French actor (b. 1931) 2003 – Jack Elam, American actor (b. 1918) 2003 – Miodrag Petrović, Serbian actor (b. 1924) 2004 – Anthony Hecht, American poet (b. 1923) 2004 – Chuck Hiller, American baseball player (b. 1934) 2005 – Shirley Horn, American singer (b. 1934) 2005 – Endon Mahmood, First Lady of Malaysia (b. 1941) 2005 – Eva Svankmajerova, Czech artist (b. 1940) 2006 – Jane Wyatt, American actress (b. 1910) 2007 – Max McGee, American football player (b. 1932) 2007 – Paul Raven, British bass-player (Killing Joke, Ministry) (b. 1961) 2008 – Gene Hickerson, American football player (b. 1935) 2010 – Bob Guccione, American publisher (Penthouse magazine) (b. 1930) 2010 – Parthasarathy Sharma, Indian cricketer (b. 1948) 2011 – Moammar Gadhafi, Ruler of Libya (b. 1942) [edit]Holidays and observances Birth of the Báb (Bahá'í Faith) Christian Feast Day: Acca of Hexham Andrew of Crete Artemius Caprasius of Agen Irene of Tomar John Cantius (Extraordinary Form, celebrated by Traditionalist Catholic) October 20 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Kenyatta Day (Kenya) Revolution Day, one of the two Patriotic Days (Guatemala) World Osteoporosis

Pragmatic sanction...17133

Signed by Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI, in 1713. The Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 (Latin: Pragmatica Sanctio) was an edict issued by Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI to ensure that the throne of the Archduchy of Austria could be inherited by a daughter. Since their marriage in 1708, Charles and his wife Elizabeth Christine had not had children, and since 1711 Charles had been the sole male member of the House of Habsburg alive. Charles' elder brother Holy Roman Emperor Joseph I had died without male issue, making accession of a female a very plausible contingency. Because the Salic law tradition precluded female inheritance, Charles VI needed to take extraordinary measures to avoid a succession disputes.[1] These precautions proved wise as Charles VI was ultimately succeeded by his elder daughter Maria Theresa (born 1717). Nevertheless, her accession was promptly met with the outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession. Contents  [hide]  1 Events leading to the Pragmatic Sanction 2 Promulgation of the Sanction 3 Events following the Pragmatic Sanction 4 The Pragmatic Sanction's failure 5 References 6 Bibliography [edit]Events leading to the Pragmatic Sanction In 1700, the senior line of the House of Habsburg went extinct with the death of King Charles II of Spain. The War of the Spanish Succession ensued, with Louis XIV of France claiming the crowns of Spain for his grandson Philip and Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I claiming them for his son Charles. In 1703, Archduke Charles left for Spain, but not before signing the Mutual Pact of Succession his father had composed.[2][3] The Pact stipulated that the claim to the Spanish realms was to be assumed by Charles, while the right of succession to the rest of the Habsburg dominions would rest with his elder brother Joseph, thereby again dividing the House of Habsburg into two lines. The Pact also specified the succession to the brothers: they would both be succeeded by their respective heirs male but should one of them fail to have a son, the other one would succeed him in all his realms.[4] However, should both brothers die leaving no sons, the daughters of the elder brother (Joseph) would have absolute precedence over the daughters of the younger brother (Charles) and the eldest daughter of Joseph would ascend all the Habsburg thrones.[2][5][6] In 1705, Leopold I died and was succeeded by his elder son, Joseph I. Six years later, Emperor Joseph I died leaving behind two daughters, Archduchesses Maria Josepha and Maria Amalia. Charles, who was at the time still unsuccessfully fighting for the crows of Spain, succeeded him according to the Pact and returned to Vienna. However, Charles soon expressed a wish to amend the Pact in order to give his own future daughters precedence over his nieces. On 9 April 1713, the Emperor announced the changes in a secret session of the council.[2] [edit]Promulgation of the Sanction Securing the right to succeed for his own daughters, who were not even born yet, would become Charles's obsession. The document was revolutionary. The previous succession laws had also forbidden the partition of the Habsburg dominions and provided for succession by females but they had been mostly hypothetical. The Pragmatic Sanction was the first such document to be publicly announced and as such required formal acceptance by the estates of the realms it concerned.[7] [edit]Events following the Pragmatic Sanction Hungary, which had an elective kingship, had accepted the house of Habsburg as hereditary kings in the male line without election in 1687 but not semi-Salic inheritance. The Emperor-King agreed that if the Habsburg male line became extinct, Hungary would once again have an elective monarchy. This was the rule in the Kingdom of Bohemia too. Maria Theresa, however, still gained the throne of Hungary; the Hungarian Parliament voted its own Pragmatic Sanction in 1723 in which the Kingdom of Hungary accepted female inheritance supporting her to become queen of Hungary.[8] [edit]The Pragmatic Sanction's failure Charles VI spent the time of his reign preparing Europe for a female ruler, but he did not prepare his daughter, Maria Theresa. He would not read documents to her, take her to meetings, or allow her to be introduced to ministers or have any preparation for the power she would receive in 1740. It is possible that it was because such instruction would imply an acceptance of his inability to produce a male heir. Charles VI managed to get the great European powers to agree to the Pragmatic Sanction (for the time being) and died in 1740 with no male heirs. However, France, Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony broke their promises and contested the claims of his daughter Maria Theresa on his Austrian lands, and initiated the War of the Austrian Succession, in which Austria lost Silesia to Prussia. The elective office of Holy Roman Emperor was filled by Joseph I's son-in-law Charles Albert of Bavaria, marking the first time in several hundred years that the position was not held by a Habsburg. His wife would have inherited the Habsburg lands if the original pactum had been adhered to. However, he had bad luck even after being elected Emperor. As Charles VII, he lost his own country, Bavaria, to the Austrian army of his wife's cousin Maria Theresa and then died. His son, Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria, renounced claims on Austria in exchange for the return of his paternal duchy of Bavaria. Maria Theresa's husband was elected Holy Roman Emperor as Francis I in 1745. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, finally recognized Maria Theresa's rule. [edit]

VARMAKALAI

VARMAKKALAI is an Indian marital art very particularly belongs to Southeast India, Tamil Nadu. Varma Kalai is a science of nerve system about human body, created and teaches by yogis those days. They found a technique to cure the disese as much as simple. Nowadays very few to know this art as medical science. We are one of among them. Basically VARMAKKALAI suthra classified our nerve system as 72000 NADI’s.which is connected with 5 elements (PANJABUTHA THATTUVA) and controlled by 10 vauye.(Thasa vayue). According to this as a human body may get 4448 diseases when this elements are unbalanced.We can easily rectify our body from various pains using this VARMAKKALI technique. This is an Art that of the highest level among all Martial/Healing arts. It’s a science of harmony between mind, soul and body. This knowledge it's not only used to afflict injury but also to cure. It’s a unique Neuro Martial Art in warfare practiced to control the enemy without any external injuries and much effort. Varma Kalai is the master of all arts, royal to its name, practiced by special Asaans (super masters) both for healing and selfdefense purposes.

Yawning

Next time you're in a meeting, try this little experiment: Take a big yawn, cover your mouth out of courtesy and watch to see how many people follow suit. There's a good chance you'll set off a chain reaction of deep breaths and wide-open mouths. And before you finish reading this article, it's likely you'll yawn at least once. Don't misunderstand, we aren't intending to bore you, but just reading about yawning will make you do it, just as seeing or hearing someone else yawn makes us do it, too. So what's behind this mysterious epidemic of yawning? First, let's look at what this bodily motion is: Yawning is an involuntary action that causes us to open our mouths wide and breathe in deeply. We know it's involuntary because we do it even before we're born: According to Robert Provine, a developmental neuroscientist at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, research has shown that 11-week-old fetuses yawn. And while yawning is commonly associated with relaxation and drowsiness, your heart rate can rise as much as 30 percent during a yawn, and yawning is a sign of arousal, including sexual arousal [sources: Alexander, The Stress of Life]. Many parts of the body are in action when you yawn. First, your mouth opens, and your jaw drops, allowing as much air as possible to be taken in. When you inhale, the air taken in is filling your lungs. Your abdominal muscles flex, and your diaphragm is pushed down. The air you breathe in expands the lungs to capacity and then some of the air is blown back out. Now that we know what a yawn is, let's look at what causes us to do it. On the next page, we'll discuss four popular theories that explain why we open wide and breathe deep.

Royal national College for the blind

The Royal National College for the Blind (RNC) is a co-educational residential college of further education based in the English city of Hereford. Students who attend the college are blind or partially sighted. Alongside regular further education subjects and vocational training, the college offers training in independent living and personal development. Founded in 1871 in London as The Royal Normal College and Academy for the Blind, the college had a number of homes before moving to its campus in Hereford, and was renamed Royal National College for the Blind in the late 1970s. It has been a pioneer in the education of visually impaired people in Britain since the Victorian era, and, as of 2010, is the only college for visually impaired students in the United Kingdom to have been awarded Beacon Status in recognition of its outstanding teaching and learning. The college is actively involved in the development of assistive technology to help visually impaired people in their day-to-day lives. The campus, located on College Road, Hereford, is home to RNC's teaching, residential and leisure facilities. Students live in halls of residence or on-campus houses which enable them to gain a level of independence within the college environment. (more...) Recently featured: Alexandre Banza – Crown Fountain – Hermann Detzner Archive – By email – More featured articles...

Kerala

 Kerala (Kēraḷaṁ, Malayalam: കേരളം) Kerala is one of the ten 'Paradises Found' by the National Geographic Traveler, for its diverse geography and overwhelming greenery. It is a land much acclaimed for the contemporary nature of its cultural ethos, and much appreciated for the soothing, rejuvenating paradise that it is. Geographically, Kerala is a narrow fertile strip on the southwest coast of India, sandwiched between the Lakshadweep Sea and the Western Ghats. The Western Ghats with their dense forests and extensive ridges have sheltered Kerala from many mainland invaders and the long coastline has encouraged maritime contact with the outside world - a contact that has resulted in an interesting blend of cultures. Kerala is a state on the Malabar Coast of southwestern India. To its east and northeast, Kerala borders Tamil Nadu and Karnataka respectively; to its west and south lie Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean with the islands of Lakshadweep and the Maldives, respectively. Kerala envelops Mahé, a coastal exclave of Pondicherry. Kerala is one of the four states in South India. First settled in the 10th century BCE by speakers of P cxroto-South Dravidian, Kerala was influenced by the Mauryan Empire. Later, the Cheran kingdom and feudal Namboothiri Brahminical city-states became major powers in the region. Early contact with overseas lands culminated in struggles between colonial and native powers. Finally, the States Reorganisation Act of November 1, 1956 elevated Kerala to statehood. Social reforms enacted in the late 19th century by Cochin and Travancore were expanded upon by post-Independence governments, making Kerala among the Third World's longest-lived, healthiest, most gender-equitable, and most literate regions. However, Kerala's suicide, alcoholism and unemployment rates rank among India's highest. The etymology of Kerala is widely disputed, and is a matter of conjecture. It may derive from Sanskrit keralam, means 'the land added on', with reference to its mythical and geographical origins. Another prevailing theory states that it is an imperfect Malayalam portmanteau that fuses kera ('coconut palm tree') and alam ('land' or 'location' or 'abode of' ). Natives of Kerala—Keralites—thus refer to their land as Keralam. The most reliable theory is that the name is originated from the phrase chera alam (Land of the Chera). Kerala's tourism industry, among others, also use the phrase God's own country.  

All about Mariamman

Registration for WikiConference India 2011, Mumbai is now open. Click here to register. Mariamman From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. (Consider using more specific cleanup instructions.) Please help improve this article if you can. The talk page may contain suggestions. (May 2010) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010) This article uses bare URLs for citations. Please consider adding full citations so that the article remains verifiable in the future. Several templates and the Reflinks tool are available to assist in formatting. (March 2011) Mariamman, Mari, Aatha Goddess of disease, rain and protection Devanagari मरी Tamil script மாரியம்மன் Weapon Trishula Māri (Tamil: மாரி),Tulu(mAri), also known as Mariamman (Tamil: மாரியம்மன் and Mariaai (Marathi: मरी आई), both meaning "Mother Mari", spelt also Maariamma (Tamil: மாரியம்மா), or simply Amman or Aatha (Tamil: அம்மன், "mother") is the South Indian Hindu goddess of disease and rain. She is the main South Indian mother goddess, predominant in the rural areas of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. Māri is also closely associated with the Hindu goddesses Parvati and Durga as well as with her North Indian counterpart Shitala Devi. Erode Mariamman Ther Thiruvilla Contents  [hide]  1 Origin 2 Iconography 3 Goddess of Disease 4 Fertility Goddess 5 Temples 6 Hindu Tradition and Worship 7 Outside India 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links [edit]Origin Māri likely originated as a village goddess related to fertility and rain. The goddess would have been a local deity, connected to a specific location, close to a certain tree, a rock or a special spot, mostly in rural areas. According to some sources, Mariamman is the same as Renuka or Yellamma and even Sri Chowdeshwari Devi. Sri Thailuramma Devi, Huchamma Devi, Manchamma Devi, Chwodamma Devi or Chowdeshwari are few considered elder sisters of Mariamman.[clarification needed] One story about the origin of Mariamman is she was the wife of Tirunalluvar, the Tamil poet, who was a pariah, outcaste. She caught smallpox and begged from house to house for food, fanning herself with leaves of the neem or margosa tree to keep the flies off her sores. She recovered and people worshipped her as the goddess of smallpox. To keep smallpox away they hang nim leaves above the doors of their houses. Another story involves the beautiful virtuous Nagavali, wife of Piruhu, one of the Nine Rishis. One day the Rishi was away and the Trimurti (an image with three heads representing Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva) came to see if her famed beauty and virtue was true. Nagavali did not know them and, resenting their intrusion, turned them into little children. The gods were offended and cursed her, so her beauty faded and her face became marked like smallpox. The Rishi returned, found her disfigured, and drove her away, declaring she would be born a demon in the next world and cause the spread of a disease which would make people like herself. She was called Mari, meaning 'changed.' Both stories are reported by Whitehead and he remarks that in Mysore he was told that Mari meant sakti, power. Mariamman is an ancient goddess, whose worship probably originated in the tribal religion of Dravidian India before the arrival of the Aryans and the brahman religion. According to tradition, among the Dravidian mountain tribes as in Coorg in southern Karnataka, human sacrifices were offered to Mariamman. These were replaced with animals and as we have seen, in some villages no animal sacrifices are offered. Here we can see a historical gradation. Local goddesses such as Mariamman who protect villages and their lands and represent the different castes of their worshippers have always been an important part of the religious landscape of South India. However, we can note periods of special significance. The eclecticism of the Vijayanagar period (1336-1565) encouraged folk religion, which became more important and influenced the more literate forms of religion. In the last century and a half there has been a rebirth of Tamil self-consciousness (see Devotion to Murukan). In the middle of the present century deities such as Mariamman have become linked to the "great tradition" as the strata of society which worship the goddess has become integrated into the larger social order. [edit]Iconography Māri is usually pictured as a beautiful young woman with a red-hued face, wearing a red dress. Sometimes she is portrayed with many arms—representing her many powers—but in most representations she has only two or four. Māri is generally portrayed in the sitting or standing position, often holding a trident (trisula) in one hand and a bowl (kapala) in the other. One of her hands may display a mudra, usually the abhaya mudra, to ward off fear. She may be represented with two demeanors—one displaying her pleasant nature, and the other her terrifying aspect, with fangs and a wild mane of hair. [edit]Goddess of Disease Mariamman was the goddess of smallpox before the disease was eradicated in India. Now she cures all so-called "heat-based" diseases like pox and rashes. During the summer months in South India (March to June), people walk miles carrying pots of water mixed with turmeric and neem leaves to ward off illnesses like the measles and chicken pox.[why?] In this way, goddess Māri is very similar to North Indian goddess Shitala Devi. [edit]Fertility Goddess Devotees also pray to Mariamman for familial welfare such as fertility, healthy progeny or a good spouse. The most favoured offering is "pongal", a mix of rice and green gram, cooked mostly in the temple complex, or shrine itself, in terracotta pots using firewood. Some festivals in honor of goddess Māri involve processions carrying lights. In the night, the devotees carry oil lamps in procession.[why?] Main shrine to Mariamman in the Sri Maha Mariamman Temple in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. [edit]Temples Most temples to Mariamman are simple village shrines, where non-Brahmins act as lay-priests using non-agamic rituals. In many rural shrines, the goddess is represented by a granite stone with a sharp tip, like a spear head. This stone is often adorned with garlands made of limes and with red flowers. These shrines often have an anthill that could be the resting place of a cobra. Milk and eggs are offered to propitiate the snake. Some temples have also attained enough popularity that Brahmins officiate at them. For example, the Samayapuram temple near the shore of river Cauvery in the northern outskirts of Trichy, maintains a rich agamic tradition and all rituals are performed by Gurukkal of Brahmins. Punainallur, near Thanjavur (Tanjore), is the location of another famous Māri temple. Legend says that Mariamman appeared to the King Venkoji Maharaja Chatrapati (1676–1688) of Tanjore in his dreams and told him she was in a forest of Punna trees three miles distant from Tanjore. The King rushed to the spot and recovered an idol from the jungle. Under the king's orders a temple was constructed, the idol installed and the place was called Punnainallur. Hence the deity of this temple is known as Punnainallur Mariamman. Mud replicas of different parts of the human body are placed in the temple as offerings by devotees pleading for cure. It is said that the daughter of Tulaja Raja (1729–35) of Tanjore, who lost her eyesight due to illness, regained it after worshiping at this temple. Erode Mariamman temple festival is grand one in Tamilnadu. Three mariamman goddess named small, mid and big mariamman in three corners of city combines to a festival at every April month of season. It has ther thiruvilla and all devotions to God which ends in Cauvery river to stack away the kambam(Mariamman's husband) into the flowing river water. Other important temples of Mariamman in Tamil Nadu are in the towns of Veerapandi, Theni, Anbil (near Trichy), Narthamalai, Thiruverkadu, Salem, Virudhunagar and Sivakasi, Vellore. In Chennai (Madras), a famous Mariamman temple is the Putthu Mariamman—the Putthu (ant hill) is across the road from the temple and is located on the Velachery Main Road. Another famous Mariamman temple is situated in the state of Karnataka, in the town of Kaup, seven kilometers from the famous temple town of Udipi. Mariamman Koil, Pilakool Mariamman Temple, Ho Chi Minh City Mariamman Temple, Bangkok Mariamman temple no 4 veerapandi Mariamman Temple, Pretoria Punnainallur Mariamman Samayapuram Mariamman Temple Sri Mahamariamman Temple, Kuala Lumpur Sri Mariamman Temple, Penang Sri Mariamman Temple, Singapore Mariamman Temple, Pretoria Sri Mahamariamman Tempel, Sulzbach, Altenwald (Germany) Sri Mariamman temple, Brazil [edit]Hindu Tradition and Worship In Hindu tradition, Mariamman is the sister of Lord Vishnu (Sriranganathar) and called Mahamaya[citation needed]. The Samayapuram Mariamman is also worshipped on the first day of the Tamil month of Vaikasi by the Iyengar/Srivaishnava Brahmins of Srirangam. They claim that she is the sister of Lord Renganath (a form of Vishnu) of Srirangam. This is the second most prominent temple in Tamil Nadu, following Palani, on the basis of income.[citation needed] Another version of the traditions suggests she is the mother of Parasurama, Renukadevi who is appeased for rains. She is also known as Sri Chowdeshwari Devi in most of the parts of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. In Mysore region she is worshipped as both Chowdeshwari Devi and as well as Mariamman. There are many instances where Mariamman has appeared to people in form an old woman wearing red sari with green bangles and three mangalsutras.[clarification needed] She is also regarded as the Gramdevata[clarification needed] of certain villages, thus reducing the incidence of contagious disease in these villages. Another version depicts her as Pattalamma, goddesses of truthfullness and punctuality. She is said to punish any villager failing to practice these virtues.[citation needed] In reference to sanskrit stotras, it is also suggested mariamman is not sister of Lord Visnu rather femenine aspect of Lord. The Lord incarnates in this form during Kali yuga, when knowledge is almost void or ignorance at peak. Even few refer or map to other female goddess like Renuka devi,none of them have been prooved or validated. The Mariamman represents core aspects of Lord in form of curative aspect to signify direction and awakening of knowledge.She is also referred as MahaLakshmi, Mahasaraswati and MahaKali. Varamahalakshi is dedicated to Mariamman.It also represents finite aspect of infinte qualities. [edit]Outside India There are many Mariamman Temples outside of India, in Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Fiji, Vietnam, Germany[1] and South Africa, the product of efforts of the Tamil diaspora. Some notable temples include the Sri Mariamman temple in Singapore, a Mariamman temple in Pretoria, South Africa, as well as one in Medan,Sri Mariamman Tempmle Karachi Pakistan, Indonesia.[citation needed] [edit]See also

Oct 16 in history

October 16 1793 – Marie Antoinette, queen consort of Louis XVII, was guillotined at the Place de la Révolution in Paris at the height of the French Revolution. 1834 – Most of the Palace of Westminster in London was destroyed in a fire. 1916 – Margaret Sanger (pictured) established the United States' first family planning clinic in Brooklyn, New York. 1934 – Long March: Surrounded by Kuomintang troops, Zhou Enlai, Bo Gu, and Otto Braun led a breakout of 130,000 Red Army soldiers and civilians from Jiangxi. 1986 – Italian mountaineer Reinhold Messner made his ascent of Lhotse, making him the first person to climb all fourteen "eight-thousanders".

Calendars

For other uses, see Calendar (disambiguation). For the Gregorian calendar for this year, see Common year starting on Saturday. A page from the Hindu calendar 1871–1872. A calendar is a system of organizing days for social, religious, commercial, or administrative purposes. This is done by giving names to periods of time, typically days, weeks, months, and years. The name given to each day is known as a date. Periods in a calendar (such as years and months) are usually, though not necessarily, synchronized with the cycle of the sun or the moon. Many civilizations and societies have devised a calendar, usually derived from other calendars on which they model their systems, suited to their particular needs. A calendar is also a physical device (often paper). This is the most common usage of the word. Other similar types of calendars can include computerized systems, which can be set to remind the user of upcoming events and appointments. A calendar can also mean a list of planned events, such as a court calendar. The English word calendar is derived from the Latin word kalendae, which was the Latin name of the first day of every month.[1] Contents  [hide]  1 Calendar systems 1.1 Solar calendars 1.1.1 Days used by solar calendars 1.1.2 Calendar reform 1.2 Lunar calendars 1.3 Lunisolar calendars 2 Calendar subdivisions 3 Other calendar types 3.1 Arithmetic and astronomical calendars 3.2 Complete and incomplete calendars 4 Uses 5 Currently used calendars 5.1 Fiscal calendars 6 Gregorian calendar with Easter Sunday 7 Physical calendars 8 Legal 9 Calendars in computing 10 See also 10.1 List of calendars 11 Sources 12 Further reading 13 References 14 External links [edit]Calendar systems A full calendar system has a different calendar date for every day. Thus the week cycle is by itself not a full calendar system; neither is a system to name the days within a year without a system for identifying the years. The simplest calendar system just counts time periods from a reference date. This applies for the Julian day. Virtually the only possible variation is using a different reference date, in particular one less distant in the past to make the numbers smaller. Computations in these systems are just a matter of addition and subtraction. Other calendars have one (or multiple) larger units of time. Calendars that contain one level of cycles: week and weekday – this system (without year, the week number keeps on increasing) is not very common year and ordinal date within the year, e.g. the ISO 8601 ordinal date system Calendars with two levels of cycles: year, month, and day – most systems, including the Gregorian calendar (and its very similar predecessor, the Julian calendar), the Islamic calendar, and the Hebrew calendar year, week, and weekday – e.g. the ISO week date Cycles can be synchronized with periodic phenomena: A lunar calendar is synchronized to the motion of the Moon (lunar phases); an example is the Islamic calendar. A solar calendar is based on perceived seasonal changes synchronized to the apparent motion of the Sun; an example is the Persian calendar. A "luni-solar calendar" is based on a combination of both solar and lunar reckonings; examples are the traditional calendar of China, the Hindu Calendar in India or the Hebrew calendar. There are some calendars that appear to be synchronized to the motion of Venus, such as some of the ancient Egyptian calendars; synchronization to Venus appears to occur primarily in civilizations near the Equator. The week cycle is an example of one that is not synchronized to any external phenomenon (although it may have been derived from lunar phases, beginning anew every month). Very commonly a calendar includes more than one type of cycle, or has both cyclic and acyclic elements. Many calendars incorporate simpler calendars as elements. For example, the rules of the Hebrew calendar depend on the seven-day week cycle (a very simple calendar), so the week is one of the cycles of the Hebrew calendar. It is also common to operate two calendars simultaneously, usually providing unrelated cycles, and the result may also be considered a more complex calendar. For example, the Gregorian calendar has no inherent dependence on the seven-day week, but in Western society the two are used together, and calendar tools indicate both the Gregorian date and the day of week.[2] The week cycle is shared by various calendar systems (although the significance of special days such as Friday, Saturday, and Sunday varies). Systems of leap days usually do not affect the week cycle. The week cycle was not even interrupted when 10, 11, 12, or 13 dates were skipped when the Julian calendar was replaced by the Gregorian calendar by various countries. [edit]Solar calendars Main article: Solar calendar [edit]Days used by solar calendars Solar calendars assign a date to each solar day. A day may consist of the period between sunrise and sunset, with a following period of night, or it may be a period between successive events such as two sunsets. The length of the interval between two such successive events may be allowed to vary slightly during the year, or it may be averaged into a mean solar day. Other types of calendar may also use a solar day. [edit]Calendar reform Main article: Calendar reform There have been a number of proposals for reform of the calendar, such as the World Calendar, International Fixed Calendar and Holocene calendar. The United Nations considered adopting such a reformed calendar for a while in the 1950s, but these proposals have lost most of their popularity. [edit]Lunar calendars Main article: Lunar calendar Not all calendars use the solar year as a unit. A lunar calendar is one in which days are numbered within each lunar phase cycle. Because the length of the lunar month is not an even fraction of the length of the tropical year, a purely lunar calendar quickly drifts against the seasons, which don't vary much near the equator. It does, however, stay constant with respect to other phenomena, notably tides. An example is the Islamic calendar. Alexander Marshack, in a controversial reading,[3] believed that marks on a bone baton (c. 25,000 BC) represented a lunar calendar. Other marked bones may also represent lunar calendars. Similarly, Michael Rappenglueck believes that marks on a 15,000-year old cave painting represent a lunar calendar.[4] [edit]Lunisolar calendars A lunisolar calendar is a lunar calendar that compensates by adding an extra month as needed to realign the months with the seasons. An example is the Hebrew calendar which uses a 19-year cycle. [edit]Calendar subdivisions Nearly all calendar systems group consecutive days into "months" and also into "years". In a solar calendar a year approximates Earth's tropical year (that is, the time it takes for a complete cycle of seasons), traditionally used to facilitate the planning of agricultural activities. In a lunar calendar, the month approximates the cycle of the moon phase. Consecutive days may be grouped into other periods such as the week. Because the number of days in the tropical year is not a whole number, a solar calendar must have a different number of days in different years. This may be handled, for example, by adding an extra day in leap years. The same applies to months in a lunar calendar and also the number of months in a year in a lunisolar calendar. This is generally known as intercalation. Even if a calendar is solar, but not lunar, the year cannot be divided entirely into months that never vary in length. Cultures may define other units of time, such as the week, for the purpose of scheduling regular activities that do not easily coincide with months or years. Many cultures use different baselines for their calendars' starting years. For example, the year in Japan is based on the reign of the current emperor: 2006 was Year 18 of the Emperor Akihito. See Decade, Century, Millennium [edit]Other calendar types [edit]Arithmetic and astronomical calendars An astronomical calendar is based on ongoing observation; examples are the religious Islamic calendar and the old religious Jewish calendar in the time of the Second Temple. Such a calendar is also referred to as an observation-based calendar. The advantage of such a calendar is that it is perfectly and perpetually accurate. The disadvantage is that working out when a particular date would occur is difficult. An arithmetic calendar is one that is based on a strict set of rules; an example is the current Jewish calendar. Such a calendar is also referred to as a rule-based calendar. The advantage of such a calendar is the ease of calculating when a particular date occurs. The disadvantage is imperfect accuracy. Furthermore, even if the calendar is very accurate, its accuracy diminishes slowly over time, owing to changes in Earth's rotation. This limits the lifetime of an accurate arithmetic calendar to a few thousand years. After then, the rules would need to be modified from observations made since the invention of the calendar. [edit]Complete and incomplete calendars Calendars may be either complete or incomplete. Complete calendars provide a way of naming each consecutive day, while incomplete calendars do not. The early Roman calendar, which had no way of designating the days of the winter months other than to lump them together as "winter", is an example of an incomplete calendar, while the Gregorian calendar is an example of a complete calendar. [edit]Uses The primary practical use of a calendar is to identify days: to be informed about and/or to agree on a future event and to record an event that has happened. Days may be significant for civil, religious or social reasons. For example, a calendar provides a way to determine which days are religious or civil holidays, which days mark the beginning and end of business accounting periods, and which days have legal significance, such as the day taxes are due or a contract expires. Also a calendar may, by identifying a day, provide other useful information about the day such as its season. Calendars are also used to help people manage their personal schedules, time and activities, particularly when individuals have numerous work, school, and family commitments. People frequently use multiple systems, and may keep both a business and family calendar to help prevent them from overcommitting their time. Calendars are also used as part of a complete timekeeping system: date and time of day together specify a moment in time. In the modern world, written calendars are no longer an essential part of such systems, as the advent of accurate clocks has made it possible to record time independently of astronomical events. [edit]Currently used calendars Calendars in widespread use today include the Gregorian calendar, which is the de facto international standard, and is used almost everywhere in the world for civil purposes, including in the People's Republic of China and India (along with the Indian national calendar). Due to the Gregorian calendar's obvious connotations of Western Christianity, non-Christians and even some Christians sometimes justify its use by replacing the traditional era notations "AD" and "BC" ("Anno Domini" and "Before Christ") with "CE" and "BCE" ("Common Era" and "Before Common Era"). The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar or Hijri calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days. It is used to date events in most of the Muslim countries (concurrently with the Gregorian calendar), and used by Muslims everywhere to determine the proper day on which to celebrate Islamic holy days and festivals. The first year was the year during which the emigration of the Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Medina, known as the Hijra, occurred. Each numbered year is designated either H for Hijra or AH for the Latin anno Hegirae (in the year of the Hijra). Being a purely lunar calendar, it is not synchronized with the seasons. With an annual drift of 11 or 12 days, the seasonal relation is repeated approximately each 33 Islamic years. The Hindu calendars are some of the most ancient calendars of the world. Eastern Christians of eastern Europe and western Asia used for a long time the Julian Calendar, that of the old Orthodox church, in countries like Russia. For over 1500 years, Westerners used the Julian Calendar as well. While the Gregorian calendar is widely used in Israel's business and day-to-day affairs, the Hebrew calendar, used by Jews worldwide for religious and cultural affairs, also influences civil matters in Israel (such as national holidays) and can be used there for business dealings (such as for the dating of checks). The Chinese, Hebrew, Hindu, and Julian calendars are widely used for religious and/or social purposes. The Iranian (Persian) calendar is used in Iran and some parts of Afghanistan. The Ethiopian calendar or Ethiopic calendar is the principal calendar used in Ethiopia and Eritrea. In Thailand, where the Thai solar calendar is used, the months and days have adopted the western standard, although the years are still based on the traditional Buddhist calendar. Bahá'ís worldwide use the Bahá'í calendar. Even where there is a commonly used calendar such as the Gregorian calendar, alternate calendars may also be used, such as a fiscal calendar or the astronomical year numbering system.[5] [edit]Fiscal calendars Main article: Fiscal calendar A fiscal calendar (such as a 4/4/5 calendar) fixes each month at a specific number of weeks to facilitate comparisons from month to month and year to year. January always has exactly 4 weeks (Sunday through Saturday), February has 4 weeks, March has 5 weeks, etc. Note that this calendar will normally need to add a 53rd week to every 5th or 6th year, which might be added to December or might not be, depending on how the organization uses those dates. There exists an international standard way to do this (the ISO week). The ISO week starts on a Monday, and ends on a Sunday. Week 1 is always the week that contains 4 January in the Gregorian calendar. Fiscal calendars are also used by businesses. This is where the fiscal year is just any set of 12 months. This set of 12 months can start and end at any point on the Gregorian calendar. This is the most common usage of fiscal calendars. [edit]Gregorian calendar with Easter Sunday Main article: Gregorian calendar Calculating the calendar of a previous year (for the Gregorian calendar taking account of the week) is a relatively easy matter when Easter Sunday is not included on the calendar. However, calculating for Easter Sunday is difficult because the calculation depends on the full moon cycle. Easter Sunday represents the first Sunday after the first full moon after the Vernal Equinox according to the computus. But it is defined as the Sunday following a theoretical Full Moon date falling on or after March 21, and different (though equivalent) calculations are specified by the Papal Bull of 1582 and the British Calendar Act of 1751. So, this makes an additional calculation necessary on top of the normal calculation for January 1 and the calculation of whether or not the year is a leap year. There are only 14 different calendars when Easter Sunday is not involved. Each calendar is determined by the day of the week January 1 falls on and whether or not the year is a leap year. However, when Easter Sunday is included, there are 70 different calendars (two for each date of Easter). [edit]Physical calendars A calendar is also a physical device (often paper) (for example, a desktop calendar or a wall calendar). In a paper calendar one or two sheets can show a single day, a week, a month, or a year. If a sheet is for a single day, it easily shows the date and the weekday. If a sheet is for multiple days it shows a conversion table to convert from weekday to date and back. With a special pointing device, or by crossing out past days, it may indicate the current date and weekday. This is the most common usage of the word. The sale of physical calendars has been restricted in some countries, and given as a monopoly to universities and national academies. Examples include the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the University of Helsinki, which had a monopoly on the sale of calendars in Finland until the 1990s. [edit]Legal Main article: Docket (court) For lawyers and judges, the calendar is the docket used by the court to schedule the order of hearings or trials. A paralegal or court officer may keep track of the cases by using docketing software. [edit]Calendars in computing Category:Calendaring standards Electronic calendar [edit]See also Calendar reform Calendrical calculation List of international common standards List of unofficial observances by date Real-Time Clock (RTC), which underlies the Calendar software on modern computers. Time for divisions smaller than one day [edit]List of calendars Main article: List of calendars [edit]Sources Birashk, Ahmad (1993), A comparative Calendar of the Iranian, Muslim Lunar, and Christian Eras for Three Thousand Years, Mazda Publishers, ISBN 0939214954 Dershowitz, Nachum; Reingold, Edward M (1997), Calendrical Calculations, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521564743 with Online Calculator Zerubavel, Eviatar (1985), The Seven Day Circle: The History and Meaning of the Week, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226981657 Doggett, LE (1992), "Calendars", in Seidelmann, P. Kenneth, Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, University Science Books, ISBN 0935702687 Árni Björnsson (1995) [1977], High Days and Holidays in Iceland, Reykjavík: Mál og menning, ISBN 9979308028, OCLC 186511596 Richards, EG (1998), Mapping Time, the calendar and its history, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198504136 Rose, Lynn E (1999), Sun, Moon, and Sothis, Kronos Press, ISBN 0917994159 Spier, Arthur (1986), The Comprehensive Hebrew Calendar, Feldheim Publishers, ISBN 0873063988 Dieter Schuh (1973) (in German), Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Tibetischen Kalenderrechnung, Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, OCLC 1150484 [edit]Further reading Fraser, Julius Thomas (1987), Time, the Familiar Stranger (illustrated ed.), Amherst: Univ of Massachusetts Press, ISBN 0870235761, OCLC 15790499 Whitrow, Gerald James (2003), What is Time?, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198607814, OCLC 265440481 [edit]References ^ New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary ^ Zerubavel, The Seven Day Circle (University of Chicago Press, 1985). ^ James Elkins, Our beautiful, dry, and distant texts (1998) 63ff. ^ Oldest lunar calendar identified ^ NASA – Year Dating Conventions [edit]External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Calendars Look up calendar in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Calendar. Calendar FAQ Invention of calendar in ancient times an educational web site  "Calendar". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920. [show]v · d · eCalendars (list) [show]v · d · eTime [show]v · d · eTime measurement and standards [show]v · d · eChron

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