CANCER EXPLAINED

Cancer is abnormal cell growth. It is the most common cause of death in Victoria, accounting for more than 10,500 deaths every year. There are about 200 different types of cancer and most areas of the body can be affected. 

Some cancers can be prevented by avoiding risk factors. For others, early detection and treatment is the best way to improve your chance of cure.

Cancer is abnormal cell growth

Generally, cancer happens when the normal cells in our body grow in an uncontrolled way. Our bodies are made up of billions of different types of cells. We are always making new cells. This enables us to grow, replace worn out cells and heal damaged cells after an injury. Special genes make sure the new cells develop and behave the way they should. 

If these genes are damaged, our cells can multiply fast and grow abnormally. This abnormal cell growth may turn into a cancer. If cancer cells replace too many healthy cells, the affected organ can no longer work properly. 

Where cancers start

Cancers can start in any part of the body. They have different names depending on where they start. For example:

• Carcinomas – start in the cells that line the skin and body cavities.
• Sarcomas – grow within supportive tissues of the body such as muscle, bone and fatty tissue.
• Leukaemia – is one type of cancer that develops in the tissue where white blood cells are formed, called the bone marrow, and affects the cells in the blood.
• Myeloma – develops in the plasma cells.
• Lymphoma – begins in the cells of the lymphatic system.

Tumours explained 

A tumour is a lump or growth of abnormal cells. It can be benign (not cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). A benign tumour is made up of cells that are similar to normal cells. They do not cause problems unless they grow very large and begin to press on other organs in the body. Malignant tumours are made up of cancer cells and they usually grow much faster than a benign tumour. If left untreated, they may spread into surrounding tissue and to other parts of the body. 

How cancers spread

A cancer begins to spread when part of the original tumour (primary tumour) breaks away from where it started and travels to nearby tissue or another part of the body. The cancer cells then start to grow there. A malignant tumour that spreads its cells into nearby tissues is known as an invasive cancer. When a cancer spreads from one part of the body to another, it is known as a secondary cancer or ‘metastasis’. 

For a cancer to grow bigger than a pinhead and spread, it has to grow its own blood supply. This is called angiogenesis. Without this, the cells at the edge of the tumour will die from lack of oxygen.

Cancer cells produce substances that allow them to move through the body much more easily than normal cells. Also, cancer cells do not stick together as well as normal cells. A cancer can spread in three main ways:

• Locally, in and near the tissue around the primary cancer
• Through the lymphatic system
• Through the blood circulation.

Cancers are ‘staged’

Staging means working out the size of the cancer and how far the cancer has spread. Knowing the stage of a cancer helps medical professionals decide on the best treatment. There are various ways to stage cancer, but most systems look for a number of key factors including:

• The size of the cancer
• If the cancer has invaded nearby tissues and by how much
• If the cancer has spread to nearby lymph vessels and by how much
• If the cancer has spread to other parts of the body.

Risk factors

The exact cause of most cancers is unknown and there is no one cause for any type of cancer. Some risk factors are likely to cause cancer, whereas others will only slightly increase the likelihood of developing cancer. This may be a combination of genetic and environmental factors. 

Some risk factors include:

• Age – most types of cancer become more common as we get older.
• Genetic make-up – some people are born with a genetic mutation that already puts them at risk of developing a cancer.
• Family history – a changed gene is passed on from parent to child.
• Lifestyle choices – such as diet, smoking, high alcohol intake and lack of physical activity.
• Environmental causes – such as exposure to too much natural radiation from the sun or radon gas.
• Exposure to harmful chemicals in the workplace – such as some dyes, rubber, gas and asbestos (now banned in Australia).
• Man-made radiation.
• Viruses – specific viruses can help to cause some cancers but you cannot catch them like an infection.
• Your immune system – people who have problems with their immune system are more likely to get some forms of cancer.

Screening can help detect some cancers early

A person with cancer may not show any symptoms until the disease is advanced. Screening a section of the population for a cancer is done if:

• The disease can be recognised at an early stage
• There is an effective low-risk and low-cost screening test
• Early treatment is likely to give a better outcome.

Three national population-screening programs operate in Victoria:

• BreastScreen Victoria
• National Cervical Screening Program
• National Bowel Cancer Screening Program.

See the Where to get help section of this fact sheet for more information about these services.

Treatment 

There are three main types of standard treatment used in cancer care. Each one can be used to try and cure cancer, to relieve symptoms, to help other treatments work better or to improve survival.

• Surgery – the cancer is surgically removed. This is often the first line of treatment if the cancer has not spread. It may be used to remove lymph nodes if these are also affected by the cancer. Cancers of the blood system (such as leukaemia) cannot be treated with surgery.
• Chemotherapy – the use of cancer-killing drugs. There are many different types of chemotherapy drugs. Some are given as tablets or capsules but most are given by drip (infusion) into a vein. The drugs go into the bloodstream and travel throughout the body to treat cancer cells wherever they are.
• Radiation therapy (or radiotherapy) – small, precise doses of radiation target and destroy cancer cells. Cancers that have not spread can often be treated effectively with radiation therapy.

You may be given one of these treatments alone or a combination of all three. There are other treatments, such as hormone therapy and immunotherapy (biological) therapy, which may be given for certain types of cancer. 

Sometimes a cancer is diagnosed when it is very advanced. This may mean that standard treatment is not going to cure the cancer. When a cure is unlikely, chemotherapy, radiotherapy or other treatments can relieve symptoms and help the person feel as comfortable as possible. They may also prolong life. This is called ‘palliative treatment’. 

Some people may look at using complementary and alternative cancer treatments. When used alongside your conventional cancer treatment, some of these therapies can make you feel better and improve quality of life. Others may not be so helpful and in some cases may be harmful. You may like to read the Cancer Council Victoria’s booklet Complementary and alternative cancer therapies. 

Remission means the cancer is controlled

Cancer that responds to treatment either stops growing or starts to shrink. This means that the signs and symptoms of cancer disappear. Doctors call this ‘remission’. A remission can last anywhere from months to years. 

About cancer statistics

It is important to remember that statistics are very general and they are only used as a general guide. The three most common groups of statistics used to talk about cancer are:

• Incidence – the number of people who develop a certain type of cancer each year.
• Survival – refers to how long you may survive a cancer depending on the type of cancer, your age, the stage of the cancer and the treatment you had. They are usually written as ‘5’ and ‘10’ year survival rates. ‘Five-year survival’ and ‘10-year survival’ refers to the percentage of people who are living 5 or 10 years after their diagnosis with a certain type of cancer. Some patients may be cured but for others the cancer will come back (recur) in this 5-year period. Others may go on for many more years before the cancer comes back.
• Mortality – this is the number of people who have died from a particular type of cancer in a year.

Incidence and mortality rates can vary between different groups of people. Some of these variations include:

• Socioeconomic differences – lung cancer and stomach cancer are more common in lower socioeconomic groups, while breast and prostate cancer and melanoma are more common in higher socioeconomic groups.
• Geographic differences – the male death rate from lung cancer is 25 per cent higher in rural compared with metropolitan areas of Victoria.
• Birthplace differences – people born overseas have lower death rates from some cancers and higher death rates from others depending on the country of origin. This is probably due to differences in lifestyle factors such as smoking, sun exposure and diet.

Where to get help

• Your doctor
• Cancer Council Helpline, Tel. 13 11 20
• Multilingual Cancer Information Line, Victoria Tel. (03) 9209 0169
• BreastScreen Victoria
• National Cervical Screening Program
• National Bowel Cancer Screening Program
• Cancer Council Victoria’s booklet Complementary and alternative cancer therapies

Things to remember

• Cancer is a disease of the body’s cells and is caused by changes to some genes that control how cells behave.
• There are around 200 different types of cancer and most areas of the body can be affected.
• Cancers differ in their cause, early symptoms and signs, treatment and outcome.
• The earlier a cancer is found the easier it is to treat.

Edison's Disc Phonograph

The History of the Edison Disc Phonograph 

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Cylinders peaked in popularity around 1905. After this, discs and disc players, most notably the Victrolas, began to dominate the market. Columbia Records, and Edison competitor, had stopped marketing cylinders in 1912. The Edison Company had been fully devoted to cylinder phonographs, but, concerned with discs' rising popularity, Edison associates began developing their own disc player and discs in secret. Dr. Jonas Aylsworth, chief chemist for Edison, and later after his retirement in 1903, a consultant for the company, took charge of developing a plastic material for the discs. The aim was to produce a superior-sounding disc that would outperform the rivals' shellac records, which were prone to wear and warping. Another difference from competitors' discs was that the vertical-cut method was to be used for the grooves. In this manner, the stylus would bob up and down in the groove, rather than from side to side or laterally. Ten-inch records would run for 5 minutes per side at approximately 80 r.p.m.

Although Edison associates initially worked on the project in secret, when Edison discovered it, he took control of this new project and gave it much of his personal attention.

Aylsworth molded phenol and formaldehyde mixed with wood-flour and a solvent into a heat-resistant disc. This material always remained absolutely plane, which was essential as it formed the core of the disc record. A phenolic resin varnish called Condensite was applied to the core, and then the disc was stamped in the record press. The finished 10" disc weighed ten ounces, heavier than most, partially due to the 1/4" thickness of the record. A diamond point was obtained for the stylus. The Disc Phonograph and the Edison Discs were designed to be an entire system, incompatible with other discs or disc players.

The new Edison Disc Phonograph was shown for the first time publicly at the Fifth Annual Convention for the National Association of Talking Machine Jobbers at Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on July 10-13th, 1911. Press reported that the new machine was based on Edison's British 1878 patent in order to deter claims of copyright infringement with Victor or Berliner. The new machine was also mentioned in the Edison Phonograph Monthly in July of 1911, but it was over a year before disc players or discs would be offered for sale.

By the end of 1912, three basic models of the Edison Disc Phonograph had been designed, ranging in price from $150 to $250, and the company salesmen took them around the country. Soon after, the choice of models was extended to feature less expensive players and luxury machines in stylish wood cabinets. Prices for the discs started from $1.15 to $4.25, but later came down to $1.35 to $2.25. The discs were expensive to make because of the complicated chemical processes used for them.

Initial public reaction was not encouraging for several reasons. The Edison cabinets were deemed to be less attractive than the Victrolas, and customers were required to buy Edison discs only for Edison players, since they were not compatible with other players. The laminated surface of the discs also had a tendency to detach from the core material, and surface noise was frequently apparent, which contradicted the aim of perfection that the company was trying to achieve with its recordings. Still, the phonographs and discs were touted as being acoustically better than those of the competitors. In order to bolster claims of superiority, Edison claimed that his records could be played 1,000 times without wear.

Recitals were also conducted to prove the merit of the discs. Edison recording artists would sing along with a disc recording of their voices, daring the audience to be able to tell the difference. In late 1915, Edison began its famous Tone Tests, which featured artists alternating their live performance on a darkened stage with that on the disc in front of large audiences, challenging them to detect a difference. Reaction was positive to these tests, and reinforced the Edison motto that the discs were "re-creations" of performances, not merely recordings of them.

Additional advertising for the Diamond Disc was secured through promotion of the Edison film The Voice of the Violin, made in 1915, which featured a Tone Test by Anna Case. (The Library of Congress copy is incomplete and, unfortunately, is lacking Case's performance.)

On the disc label, sides were indicated by "L" and "R", referring to the left side or the right side when stored vertically. The early disc issues contained the Edison trademark, Edison's image, the title of the selection, and the composer, all pressed into the glossy black surface of the disc using a half-tone electrotype. The early issues did not carry the artists' names, reflecting Edison's policy of not seeking out name acts, but supposedly relying on the quality of the music alone. In 1915, the artists' names began to be added to the labels. In 1921, black paper labels with white Roman type began to be used, and were changed at the end of 1923 to white labels.

By 1916, demand increased for console cabinets to house the disc players. The Edison Company produced a series of period models to compete with those of the Victor Company. The designer for the cabinets was H.D. Newson from the W.A. French Furniture Company of Minneapolis. Named "The Art Models," these cabinets came in English, French, and Italian period styles, as well as Gothic styles. Prices ranged from $1,000 to $6,000. Advertising for these models made it clear that the players themselves were the same as lower-priced models; the inflated cost was for the cabinet.

In 1917 when the U.S. became involved in World War I, the Edison Company created the Army and Navy Model in answer to a request for machines from the United States Army

Depot Quartermaster in New York. The simple, basic machine sold for $60. The Department of War never purchased any, but individual units bought them, some taking them overseas. The Army and Navy Model was discontinued after the war's end.

By 1917, the Disc Phonograph had garnered considerable success in the marketplace. This good fortune continued for almost seven years. In contrast, the cylinder phonograph business declined; by 1925, the remaining cylinder customers had to order directly from the factory. By 1920, Edison was the only disc company not using steel needles or the lateral method of grooves.

By 1924, business began to sour with the advent of competition from radio. Operations were cut back, and experimentation began with long-playing records. These were introduced in October 1926 along with four new console disc phonographs. As a concession to the marketplace, attachments were also offered so that the Edison phonographs could play the laterally-cut records of competitors.

By the latter half of the 20's, the company started to diversify its interests in an attempt to stay viable. Thoughts of moving pictures with sound led the company to develop an Ediscope which featured still pictures with narration. This was envisioned as being appropriate for the children's market, since it could be used for fairy tales and educational nature talks. Work was also begun on the Cine-Music Phonograph, which was conceived to supply musical accompaniment to motion pictures.

Edison entered into the radio business in 1928 by taking over the Aplitdorf-Bethlehem Electrical Company of Newark, a move which allowed him to produce radio-phonographs. The Edison Company further expanded into the field of radio by making programs for radio on long-playing discs. Radio station WAAM of Newark, NJ, agreed to use the new Rayediphonic Reproducing Machine and Radiosonic records in 1929, with the first Radiosonic broadcast being aired on April 4. It appeared that the company had finally found a profitable outlet.

In the summer of 1929, the Edison company gave into the popular trend and introduced the Edison Portable Disc Phonograph with New Edison Needle Records, offering both the Diamond Discs and the new needle records simultaneously.

These changes did not measurably improve business, and on October 21, orders were given to close the Edison disc business, with the company stating that it would focus on the manufacture of its radio-phonographs in the future.

  

Photocopiers...How they work.

How Photocopiers Work – A Clear Picture

Thu, 03/16/2000 - 07:17 — Arlene Martell

The purpose of photocopiers is to create a clear picture – a picture that’s an exact duplicate of the original. Look at the word – photocopy. Photo – picture of. Copy – duplicate. So, as we said, a photocopy is a duplicate of the original picture. But how could an exact copy be created? What kind of technology would it involve? Would it surprise you that the technology behind photocopying is based on two natural phenomena?

The amazing thing about how photocopiers work is the nature of these phenomena. These principles are:

1. Materials of opposite electrical charges attract, and
2. Some materials become better conductors of electricity when exposed to light.

When Chester F. Carlson applied these principles to his work – to find an alternative method of duplicating for the myriad of reports he had to produce – the result was the basis of today’s photocopier, printer and fax machine technology.

The basic principles of photocopying

Chester Carlson’s experiments followed a simple process:

1. A photoconductive surface is given a positive electrical charge.
2. The photoconductive surface is then exposed to the image of a document.
3. The electrical charge dissipates in the exposed areas.
4. Negatively-charged powder that’s spread over the surface sticks to the positively-charged areas through electrostatic attraction.
5. A piece of paper is placed over the powder image and given a positive charge.
6. The negatively-charged powder is attracted to the paper as it’s separated from the photoconductor.
7. Heat fuses the powder image to the paper, producing a copy of the original image.

Today’s copiers follow these principles

Carlson’s electrophotographic process, through much experimentation, has been greatly improved. Modern-day copiers are much advanced from the original model first put out by Xerox in 1948. Let’s look at the electrophotographic process, after it was developed into what we know of today as the photocopier.

• Inside every copier is a light-sensitive surface called a photoreceptor, consisting of a thin layer of photoconductive material that’s applied to a flexible belt or drum. This drum can be charged with a form of static electricity.
• Also inside the copier is toner, a very fine black powder. The drum, when it’s charged with static electricity, can attract the toner particles.
• The drum can be selectively charged; that is, selected parts of it can be charged, thereby attracting toner to only those parts that are charged.
• The sheet of paper gets charged with static electricity and it pulls the toner off the drum.
• The toner is heat sensitive, so the loose toner particles are attached, or fused, to the paper with heat as soon as they come off the drum.

How do you like your copy?

So let’s put all these principles together and see exactly what happens after you put your original on the platen (glass) and close the lid.

After you close the lid, the first thing you see is that bright light passing over your original. This is a similar process to light being let in by a camera lens, projecting the image onto a photoreceptive surface. In the case of the photocopier, the photoreceptive surface is the drum.

The dark, or printed, areas on the original don’t reflect light, and that produces a positive electrical charge. Since positive charges attract, they pull toner, which carries a negative charge, from the toner cartridge, only to the areas that carry a positive charge – the printed areas. From there, heat is applied (which is why your copies are so hot), which fuses the particles of toner to the blank sheet of paper, thereby reproducing your original.

That’s simply it! You get your copy exactly as you want it – exactly what you tell the photocopier to give you.

What about all those parts?

Don’t you wonder how all those moving parts come together at exactly the right time to give you your copy? Let’s see if we can see inside the photocopier to find out what happens when you press that “Start” button.

The first part that comes into play is the corona wire. Its job is to lay down a positively-charged layer of ions on the drum. Then, simultaneously, the light comes on, and the drum begins to rotate. The light reflects off mirrors onto the drum, with the dark areas absorbing the light.

The drum is made out of aluminum, which is a great conductor of electricity. And that makes it the ideal material, because the next step in the process is the addition of an electrical charge, or voltage. And the next part that comes into play is the rollers, which are covered with toner. The toner is pressed onto the roller.

Then the corona wire is activated again, giving the sheet of paper that’ll ultimately be your copy, a positive charge. The sheet of paper then picks up the toner from the drum, and is then sent to the fuser. The fuser consists of heated rollers that melt the toner onto the page.

The copied page is then sent to the collection tray and, voila! You have your photocopy.

The principles of electrophotography are used in many machines today

All this from the dreams and the efforts of one man – Chester F. Carlson – the creator of xerography. Xerography is a unique process that depends on chemical, electrical, mechanical and software know-how. Besides photocopiers, this process is also used in printers and fax machines. The rapid and economical digital printing process most used today produces either one print or hundreds of identical prints in black and white or color. More importantly, the capability of xerography enables on-demand printing of complete documents such as brochures and books. Such on-demand printing can save time, reduce costs, and eliminate document obsolescence, overruns and warehousing.

So you can see, there are many reasons to gain a good knowledge and understanding of electrophotography and its subsequent technology, xerography. If you know what’s going on with your copier, you’ll be able to get the maximum use of its features and benefits. And with that, you’re left with a clear picture.

HONEY it's Medicinal Properties.

Tungsten Carbide..the hardest known alloy

Tungsten carbide (WC) is an inorganic chemical compound containing equal parts of tungsten and carbon atoms. Colloquially, tungsten carbide is often simply called carbide. In its most basic form, it is a fine gray powder, but it can be pressed and formed into shapes for use in industrial machinery, tools, abrasives, as well as jewelry. Tungsten carbide is approximately three times stiffer than steel, with a Young's modulus of approximately 550 GPa,^[2] and is much denser than steel or titanium. It is comparable with corundum (α-Al₂O₃ or sapphire) in hardness and can only be polished and finished with abrasives of superior hardness such as silicon carbide, cubic boron nitride and diamond amongst others, in the form of powder, wheels and compounds.

DomesticTungsten carbide is sometimes used to make the rotating ball in the tips of ballpoint pens that disperse ink during writing.

A tungsten carbide ringTungsten carbide can now be found in the inventory of some jewelers, most notably as a primary material in men's wedding rings. When used in this application the bands appear with a lustrous dark hue often buffed to a mirror finish. The color is more similar to that of hematite than to that of platinum. The finish is highly resistant to scratches and scuffs, holding its mirror-like shine for years. Although it is possible to inlay precious metals, woods, and other materials, these are less scratch-resistant than tungsten carbide.

A common misconception concerning tungsten carbide rings is that they cannot be removed in the course of emergency medical treatment, requiring the finger to be removed instead. Emergency rooms and many full-service jewelry repair shops are equipped with jewelers' saws that can cut through tungsten carbide rings without injuring the hand or finger. An easier way to remove tungsten carbide rings is to use a tool such as a vise, which can be used to shatter the ring.

Many manufacturers of this emerging jewelry material state that the use of a cobalt binder may cause unwanted reactions between the cobalt and the natural oils on human skin. Skin oils cause the cobalt to leach from the material. This is said to cause possible irritation of the skin and permanent staining of the jewelry itself. Many manufacturers now advertise that their jewelry is "cobalt free". This is achieved by replacing the cobalt with nickel as a binder.

LEARN TO ADMIT YOUR MISTAKES

One reason Hitler lost World War II was that he did not fully understand the situation. Bearers of bad news were punished. Soon no one dared tell him the truth. Not knowing the truth, he could not act appropriately.

Many of us are individually guilty of the same error. We do not like to admit to ourselves our mistakes, errors, shortcomings, or ever admit we have been in the wrong. And because we will not see the truth, we cannot act appropriately.

Someone has said that it is a good exercise to daily admit one painful fact about ourselves to ourselves.

Look for and seek out true information concerning yourself, your problems, other people, or situation, whether it is good news or bad news.

Adopt the motto – “It doesn’t matter who’s right, but what’s right.”

Admit your mistakes and errors but don’t cry over them. Correct them and go forward. In dealing with other people try to see the situation from their point of view as well as your own.

REGARDS









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14. The Stonehenge

14. The Stonehenge

The Stonehenge landscape of Salisbury Plain , England , has become a tourist hotspot. But before foreigners with windbreakers and cameras showed up, the area may have been a burial ground and ceremonial den dating back 5,000 years.

13. The Ark of the Covenant..Unsolved mystery.

13. The Ark of the Covenant.
The Ark of the Covenant is described in the Bible as a wooden casket, gold plated, made for carrying the tablets of the Ten Commandments. The casket was carried throughout the desert and remained in the Israelite Temple until its destruction by the hand of the Babylonian Empire. Its whereabouts are still unknown, but Hollywood made its own version for ‘Raiders of the Lost Ark.’


The Ark of the Coveanant.

12. Chupacabra..another unsolved mystery

12. Chupacabra

Phylis Canion holds the head of what she is calling a Chupacabra at her home in Cuero , Tex. The strange-looking animal, first reported in Puerto Rico in 1995, apparently has a taste for chicken and goat blood. Although many pictures like the above might prove its existence, biologists assure none such creature exists.