Contribution of Sir Issac Newton to science.

Overview







Isaac Newton is considered by many to be the father of modern physics. He invented calculus, and with calculus in hand, people could now create mathematical models of changing systems. His three laws of motion and his law of gravitation, however, are still one of the first things that all physics students learn, and are the basis behind a lot of physics that is done today.






Although Newton made many very important contributions to the world of science, the most important to astronomy were his laws of motion and law of gravity.






Laws of Motion






Newton's Laws of Motion are still used by physicists all over the world. Newtonian Physics is taught in many courses at the college level, as well as high school and middle school. Everything in that genre of physics is based upon these three laws:






Every object has uniform motion unless acted upon by a force.


The force applied to an object is equal to the object's mass times the resulting acceleration:


For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.


These laws are used to describe everything from throwing a ball to the merging of galaxies. Even though it has been shown through people like Albert Einstein that Newton's Laws are really approximations, they work so well on a wide range of scales, that they are still used in lieu of the better laws. For example, you would use Newtonian Mechanics to describe the acceleration of a car, not Einstein's General Relativity.






Law of Gravity






Newton's Law of Gravity is not precise in extreme circumstances, such as very high velocities or very strong gravity. For cases such as these, Einstein's General and Special Relativity theories are needed. However, in most other cases, and especially those that we are familiar with on Earth, Newton's Law works extremely well.






It is based upon his laws of motion, and it shows how two objects exhibit a force upon the other. It is the equation to the right.






It says that the gravitational force experienced is equal to a gravitational constant times both masses divided by the distance between them squared. The value "G" is an extremely small number, and therefore the gravitational force is extremely weak - the weakest of the four fundamental forces. This law also shows that the force of gravity dies off with the square of the distance. This means that if you are twice as far away from something, then the gravitational force you experience is 1/4 as much.

Inventions of Galleo.

Introduction to Galleo



Galileo Galilei, who lived from 1564 to 1642, is considered one of the founders of modern geometry and physics. Although he developed many important scientific theories and made many critical observations of the solar system, he is not credited with many original inventions. He did contribute to many inventions and improve upon many others.

Heliocentric Model of the Solar System



One of Galileo's most famous "inventions" was his confirmation that the sun is the center of our solar system, a theory first put forward by Nicolaus Copernicus. Galileo confirmed the theory partly through his observation of the phases of the planet Venus as it reflected light from the sun while orbiting the star. This was revolutionary at the time because most of the world still believed Earth was the center of the universe. The Catholic Church arrested Galileo as a heretic for this.





The Telescope


Although the telescope was invented in 1608 by Dutchman Hans Lippershey, Galileo built his own in 1609, without ever having seen Lippershey's, and he improved it over time from 3X magnification to about 30X. He built his first telescope based on descriptions he had heard. He was the first to use a telescope to observe the heavens.






Actual Inventions


In 1597, Galileo invented a geometric compass, a scientific instrument with two arms that can be used for making calculations and geometric measurements. Galileo also is credited with inventing a microscope with two lenses at either end of a hollow tube.






Contributions to Other Inventions


Galileo also contributed to the invention of several other pieces of technology for which there is no acknowledged single inventor. For instance, in he built an early thermometer in the 1590s, which used the expansion and compression of air to lift and lower water in a tube.

Invention of the coffee filter

Coffee History: Melitta Bentz, Inventor of the Paper Filter


Of all the mad geniuses we have to thank for several centuries' worth of coffee-technology advancement, perhaps the person the vast majority of us owe the most gratitude to is a rather unlikely candidate: A housewife from Dresden, Germany. Specifically, the very enterprising (if maybe a little frumpy), apfelstrudel-baking mother of two Melitta Bentz, inventor of the paper filter.








As with most so-simple-it's-brilliant innovations, Bentz's invention was born out of irritation and annoyance. Fed up with the alternatives—such as having to constantly wring out stain-ridden cloth filters, or scrape coffee sludge off the bottom of unfiltered coffee pots—Bentz devised a simple (and, hallelujah, easily disposable!) filtration system by laying a regular old piece of paper over the perforated bottom of a brass pot. The result was a clean cup—and a relatively clean brewer, which of course would please any overextended housewife.

Within two years, she'd filed a patent on the design (formalized in 1908) and set up shop with her husband and sons, cranking out filters for caffeine-craving Germans. By the 1930s, the filter's original design had changed rather drastically, morphing from the flat-bottomed metal unit into a cone-shaped ceramic piece, with the unmistakable triangular-folded paper filter we know today.




While the company that bears Melitta's name is still a leader in drip-cone manufacturing, coffee-loving geeks, designers, and professionals all over the world have followed our gal's lead by making tweaks to Bentz's initial concept and striving for the perfect filter brew. Japanese companies like Beehouse and Bonmac are ahead of the pack, and fanatical pour-over-loving baristas will argue with blue faces about the best methods for extracting coffee using this or that brewer. ("Pour the water slowly." "No, all at once!" "It has to be added in a slow circle, moving from the middle outward, in a clockwise rotation." "No, counterclockwise!" And so on, ad nauseum.)







So the next time you blearily reach for a paper filter, anxious to get the lifeblood flowing with that first morning cup, don't forget to pour a little of the finished brew out for one solid dame we all owe a debt to: Good ol' Melitta Bentz.

How does an instant camera work?

With instant-film photography, you can watch the image slowly come together in a matter of minutes. See more pictures of cool camera stuff.

Instant camera film is remarkable because it has its own built-in developing studio. To understand how this works, you need to understand the basics of traditional photographic film. Film is a plastic base coated with particles of silver compound that are sensitive to light. Black-and-white film has one layer of silver compound, while color film has three layers -- the top layer is sensitive to blue light, the next layer is sensitive to green and the bottom layer is sensitive to red. When you expose the film, the sensitive grains at each layer react to light of that color, forming metallic silver at that layer. This gives you a chemical record of the light and color pattern.



To turn this into a picture, you have to develop the film. One developer chemical turns the exposed particles into metallic silver. The film is then treated with three different dye developers containing dye couplers. The three dye colors are cyan (a combination of green and blue light), magenta (a combination of red and blue light) and yellow (a combination of green and red light).


Each of these dye coupler types react with one of the color layers in the film. In ordinary print film, the dye couplers attach to particles that have been exposed. In color slide film, the dye couplers attach to the non-exposed areas. Developed color film has a negative image -- the colors appear opposite of the colors in the original scene. In slide film, the two dyes that attach to the unexposed area combine to form the color captured at the exposed layer. For example, if the green layer is exposed, yellow and cyan dye will attach on either side of the green layer, but the magenta dye will not attach at the green layer. The yellow and cyan combine to form green.


The instant camera developing process combines colors the same basic way as slide film. It has the same layers of light-sensitive grains as traditional film, all arranged on a plastic sheet. The film also contains several additional layers, however. These layers contain all the necessary chemicals for the development process. Underneath each color layer, there is a developer layer containing dye couplers. All these layers sit on top of a black base layer, and underneath the image layer, timing layer and acid layer. This arrangement is essentially a chemical chain reaction waiting to be set in motion.


See how instant camera film develops on the next page. ­

Instant camera film has the entire developing process arranged in chemical layers. When the reagent enters above the light sensitive layers, it gets the process going.
With instant-film photography, you can watch the image slowly come together in a matter of minutes.
How Instant Film Develops



The component that gets the developing process going is the reagent (as in re-agent), a mix of opacifiers, alkali, white pigment and other elements. The reagent sits in a layer just above the light-sensitive layers and just below the image layer. Before you take the picture, the reagent material is all collected in a blob at the border of the plastic sheet, away from the light-sensitive material. This keeps the film from developing before it has been exposed.


After you snap the picture, the film sheet passes out of the camera, through a pair of rollers. The rollers spread the reagent material out into the middle of the film sheet, just like a rolling pin spreading out dough. When the reagent is spread in between the image layer and the light-sensitive layers, it reacts with the other chemical layers in the film. The opacifier material stops light from filtering onto the layers below, so the film isn't fully exposed before it is developed.


The reagent chemicals move downward through the laye­rs, changing the exposed particles in each layer into metallic silver. The chemicals then dissolve the developer dye so it begins to diffuse up toward the image layer. The metallic silver areas at each layer -- the grains that were exposed to light -- grab the dyes so they stop moving up. Only the dyes from the unexposed layers will move up to the image layer. For example, if the green layer was exposed, no magenta dye will make it to the image layer, but cyan and yellow will. These colors combine to create a translucent green film on the image surface. Light reflecting off the white pigment in the reagent shines through these color layers, the same way light from a bulb shines through a slide.






Instant camera film has the entire developing process arranged in chemical layers. When the reagent enters above the light sensitive layers, it gets the process going.


At the same time these reagent chemicals are working down through the light sensitive layers, other reagent chemicals are working through the upper film layers. The ac­id layer in the film reacts with the alkali and opacifiers in the reagent, making the opacifiers become clear. This lets you see the image below. The timing layer slows the reagent down on its path to the acid layer, to give the film time to develop before it is exposed to light.


When you watch the image in a photo film come into view, you're actually seeing this final chemical reaction. The image is already developed underneath -- you're just watching the acid layer clear up the opacifiers in the reagent so the image becomes visible.

Production of a daily newspaper...Steps

The Editorial Process







The process of producing a daily edition of a large city newspaper begins with a meeting of the paper's editors, who determine the amount of editorial copy in an issue based on the advertising space that has already been sold. A specific number of pages is agreed upon, and the editorial assignments are made to the various departments. The section of national and international news, generally the first part of the paper, is compiled from correspondents who send in their stories electronically, usually via computer modern, to their editor's computer. There, the editor checks the stories, sometimes rewriting them or increasing or decreasing their length. Additional stories of importance are compiled from wire services such as United Press International, Associated Press, and Reuters. These are organizations that employ reporters in various cities of the globe to compile stories and items quickly for dissemination over telephone wires.










Holding a sign stating "We're Printers, by gravy," these young men had their photograph taken in the mid-1890s, possibly to commemorate the end of their apprenticeships.


(From the collections of Henry Ford Museum & Greenfield Village.)


Timeliness is of the essence in the newspaper business. Even 150 years ago, New York City publishers would have messengers waiting to meet ships coming from Europe. The messengers would grab the latest dispatches, newspapers, and even novels and race to the printing office. There, rows of compositors would be poised to work all night setting type so that the next afternoon's newspaper could contain European news only two weeks old or the first chapters of a novel published months ago.






With the coming of the telegraph to the western parts of the U.S. in the mid-19th century, editors commonly kept one or two compositors late into the night ready to set stories that came in from the East by telegraph. The dots and dashes of the telegraph message, often consisting of just key words and phrases, were hastily transcribed by the telegrapher and given directly to the typesetters. Compositors were skilled enough to decipher the telegrapher's scribbles, compose full sentences while setting type (letter by letter) by hand, and complete the entire story by deadline.






The Linotype machine, developed in the 1880s, combined the processes of composing text, casting type, and redistributing the type molds. By working a keyboard, the Linotype operator assembled molds, or matrices, of letters, numbers, or punctuation marks in sequence. The matrices were then mechanically held in place while molten type metal was forced into them, creating a line of type ("lin' o' type"). The individual matrices were automatically replaced in the machine's magazine for reuse.






The Linotype increased the speed of a typesetter fourfold. This allowed editors to cut labor costs while getting all the latest news. The machine cost hundreds of compositors their jobs and added to the intensity and pace of the work.






William S. Pretzer






For a typical, newsbreaking story of local origin, the process begins with a correspondent submitting a report, either in person or via computer modern, to the "rewrite" desk person. The rewrite journalist fine-tunes the wording of the story and makes sure it answers the six important questions: who, what, where, when, why, and how. He or she then sends it over to the computer at the city desk. The city desk editor, who is responsible for the paper's local content, looks over the story, makes additional changes if necessary, and sends it over to the news desk. The news editor, who makes the final call about which stories to run in the upcoming edition based on their relevance, may make further changes before submitting the piece to the copydesk. The story arrives there with guidelines for length as well as headline instructions regarding size and type.






From this point, the story is set to be inserted on a certain page that has already been roughly laid out by both the news editor and a makeup editor. A mock-up of the page, essentially a blank form showing where the stories will run and where pictures and advertising will be inserted, is called the "dummy." The makeup editor has already met with the advertising department to determine how such pages will be laid out with ad space. The dummy has rough notes for headlines, story insertions, and graphic elements such as photos and tables of statistics. It also shows the date of the edition as well as a page and section number. After the news editor has determined the placement of the story on the page in question—as well as the other items set to run there—the dummy is sent on to a composing room.






The Manufacturing


Process






Typesetting






1 The composing room receives the story in an electronic format, with the computer text file already translated with typeset codes. In a typeset file, the characters are of the same "type"—style, size, and width—as they appear on the pages of the newspaper. The setting of stories into the type that a reader sees went unchanged for several decades until the latter years of the 20th century. Well into the 1800s, type was set by hand, letter by letter. A typesetter dropped small metal letters into a hand-held tray called a "stick." The invention of the Linotype machine in 1884 made possible a quicker, more efficient method of typesetting. Invented by German immigrant Ottmar Mergenthaler of Baltimore, Maryland, this large, cumbersome machine worked by casting hot lead into a line of type with the assistance of an operator who typed in the copy on a keyboard. Individual lines of type were then placed by hand onto a page form. When a page was completed, it was then sent to a stereotyping room where a curved metal plate was made from the page form. The page form was then placed on the printing press.


Modern technology has replaced the Linotype process through a method called phototypesetting. The first step in this process is the transfer of the dummy to the page layout section of the newspaper. There, an operator transfers the instructions on the dummy into a rough page prototype. A printed version may be looked over and adjusted several times by one of the reporters whose story is featured as well as by the copy editor. If another breaking story comes in, this page layout can be altered in a matter of minutes.






Image transference






2 The final version of the page is then approved by the editor on duty—sometimes a night editor in the case of a paper that is slated for a morning edition—and sent over to a process department. There, the page is taken in its computer format and transferred via laser beams onto film in an image setter apparatus. The operator then takes the film to a processor in another section of the paper, who develops it and adjusts it for its final look. Photographs are scanned into another computer terminal and inserted into the page layout. The pages that are set to be printed together are then taped down onto a device called a "stripper," and an editor checks them over once more for errors. The strippers are then put into frames on light-sensitive film, and the image of each page is burned onto the film. The film of each page is inserted into a laser reader, a large facsimile machine that scans the page and digitally transfers the images to the printing center of the newspaper.


At the printing center, typically a large plant separate from the newspaper's editorial offices and centrally located to facilitate









citywide distribution, the pages arrive at the laser room and are put through a laser writer, another scanning device that makes a negative image of them. In the negative image of the page, the text is white while the blank spaces are black. The final images of each page are further adjusted. This last-minute adjustment may involve fine-tuning of the colored sections and retouching photographs.


Platemaking






3 From these negatives, the forms from which the paper will be printed are composed in a platemaking room. The film of the page, usually done two pages at a time, is then placed on a lighted box. Next, an aluminum plate containing a light-sensitive coating is placed on top of the image of the pages. The light box is then switched on, and ultraviolet light develops the image of the pages onto the aluminum plate. The aluminum plate is then bent at the edges so that it will fit into a press, and is fitted onto plate cylinders.


Printing






4 The aluminum plates of each page next move on to the actual printing press, an enormous machine often two stories high. When the press is running, the noise in the building is deafening and employees must wear earplugs. The most common method of printing newspapers is called web offset. The "web" refers to the large sheets of blank newsprint that are inserted in rolls, sometimes weighing over a ton, into the actual printing press. The reels of newsprint are loaded in at the bottom floor of the press. The rolls are inserted onto a reel








stand, which has three components: the first reel brings a roll of paper up to the press, a second is loaded and ready to replace the first roll when it runs out, and a third reel stays empty and ready to be fed with another when the first reel is almost finished. Each roll of blank newsprint has double-sided tape at its edges, so that when one roll runs out in the press, another smoothly takes up where the other left off without interrupting the printing process.


The plate cylinders then press the image of the page onto a blanket cylinder, leaving a version of the page's image on the cylinder's soft material. When the paper runs through the press, the blanket cylinder presses the image onto it. The chemical reaction of the ink, which contains oil, and the squirting of jets of water into the process result in the actual newspaper page of black or colored images on a white back-ground. Since oil and water do not mix, the areas where ink should adhere to the page are black or colored, and water washes away the parts where ink is not needed. This is why this printing process is referred to as "offset."






Next, the large sheets of printed newsprint move on to another large piece of machinery called a folder. There, the pages are cut individually and folded in order. This entire printing process can move as fast as 60,000 copies per hour. Quality control technicians and supervisors take random copies and scan them for printing malfunctions in color, order, and readability. Next, a conveyer belt moves the papers into a mail room section of the plant, where they are stacked into quires, or bundles of 24. The quires then move to another section where a machine wraps them in plastic. The bundles are now ready to be loaded onto delivery trucks for distribution.






The Future






The demise of the printed word, especially in the form of a daily newspaper, is periodically predicted to be imminent by industry analysts. The growth of other news sources —such as radio and 24-hour television news stations—has helped diminish the impact of newspapers, but the competition between dailies in many cities has forced many of the weaker, less financially-viable newspapers out of business. In many cities, joint-operating agreements—by which two competing papers share business, advertising, and printing departments—has helped to keep two editorially distinct papers afloat.






Bypassing the printed newspaper altogether, on-line computer technology has enabled consumers to pick and choose news from among their own specific interests on the information superhighway. One site on the Internet, one of the most popular providers of access to on-line information, allows a person to create his or her own newspaper. A menu appears onscreen, and the user selects stories from wire services, as well as entertainment features and cartoons, and inserts them onto a template. This template can be generated on a daily basis with a few keystrokes, producing an edition of a customized newspaper almost instantly.

History of Newspapers in India.

Origin of Newspapers:









The History of newspapers is arguably one of the most dramatic episodes of human experience. The actual origin of newspapers lies in the Renaissance Europe when local merchants used to distribute handwritten newsletters amongst each other. However it was not until the late 1400’s when Germany introduced the precursors of printed newspapers. Since then newspapers have evolved dramatically and today there are more than 6580 daily newspapers in the World. A typical modern day newspaper is filled with various materials like editor’s columns, newspaper classified ads , newspaper display ads, forecasts, comic strips, entertainment section and much more. Unfortunately the sudden economic downturn has also seen the rise of electronic or web-based versions of newspaper journals which automatically resulted in a decline in newspaper classified advertising and circulation.


History and origin of newspapers in India:






The history of newspapers in India is equally interesting. The introduction of newspapers in India was hastened by the spreading sense globalization amongst the countrymen who wished to be informed about the recent events in the world. It was during the same time that the first newspaper of the country was introduced in Calcutta (Kolkata). The newspaper titled Calcutta General Advertise or Hickey’s Bengal Gazette was introduced by an eccentric Irishman called James Augustus Hickey during the 1780’s. In the years to come India was the establishment of another newspaper daily in the form of Bombay Herald followed closely by Bombay Courier.






History and Evolution of Indian Newspapers:


Although there was a flurry of English broadsheets during the eighteenth century, newspapers in regional languages made its way much later during the second half of the nineteenth century. First on the list were two Bengali newspapers called Samachar Darpan and Bengal Gazette while the first Hindi newspaper was Samachar Sudha Varshan. The Hindu newspaper which was launched as a competitor of Madras Mail became the first national newspaper of the country. Soon it became the voice of the nation during the establishment period.










Indian Newspapers: History & Origin


Since then many newspapers have been introduced out of which newspapers dailies like Times of India, The Telegraph, Hindu, Hindustan Times, The Statesman, Economic Times, Anadabazar Patrika, The Tribune etc have become the highest circulated newspapers of the country.

Put aside formal education.

Many will argue that without education, the world would still be in the dark ages. Education is generally seen as the catalyst for development in any society. This argument fails to realize that the individuals that have advanced the world were persons that refused to conform to educational dictates. These individuals thought outside the box of conformity as presented by formal education. Formal education removes or greatly reduces a person's creative ability. It simply teaches you to believe and accept something as a fact except someone, who dares to think outside the box proves the fact otherwise. For anyone who wishes to excel in life, the one must put aside formal education and reach out into the deep reserve of creative ability on the inside.







Through education, accumulated knowledge, skills or values are deliberately passed on to another individual. Education is a process that is designed to have a formative effect on individual from a tender age. A child is thought from a tender age some societal values that are preserved and passed from generation to generation. We are thought in schools, about the gravitational force and that the earth is spherical. Depending on a person's choice of career, there are educational curriculums designed to impact knowledge towards achieving a career goal. A person is said to be formally educated after successfully completing the curriculum and passing the final examination.






To be educated therefore is to show an understanding of the subject area as put together by the teacher. Sometimes, it is a matter of 'junk-in' and 'junk-out'. Education tries to impact knowledge that is generally accepted to be true or has morale.






Formal education constrains one to figure out what someone else has done on a particular subject. It gets one occupied trying to unravel equations or to simply memorize the equation. The focus is to pass the examination at the end of the course. It reduces an individual to a mere robot: performing a third party script. Formal education does not provide much of an opportunity to use one's initiative. It destroys creativity and prevents one from utilizing this rich resource of the mind. It simply teaches to accept other persons' view on a subject.






The world is full of persons who are formally educated only to end up in some form of routine job. These are not the persons the world needs. The world needs those who have the courage to put aside formal education and to think outside the box. These are the dreamers and the inventors. To think outside the box is to tap from the potential that lies within the mind of every individual. It means being creative and original. The world does not celebrate those who are formally educated. It only celebrates those who dare to be different and think outside the box. If you wish to be celebrated, then you must put aside formal education and think outside the box.






I have come to observe that some of the greatest men and women in the world were/are persons that put aside formal education. Most of them were not formally educated. These persons refused to conform but rather reached into the deep resource of their minds to produce creative ideas that are celebrated all over the world.






The world cannot forget Thomas Edison in a hurry. He is one of the greatest inventors the world ever produced. One of his legacies is the incandescent light. Thomas suffered from partial deafness and lacked formal education. He believed that he had something to live for and reached into the deep resources of his mind by thinking outside the box.






John D. Rockefeller is believed to be the richest man in history. He had hoped to go to college but had to drop out of high school in order to work and to support his family. By the age of twenty-five years, he already had a refinery. Without formal education, J D Rockefeller assessed the great wealth of his mind to establish his great empire and to employ the educated folks.







The story of Bill Gates, the co-founder of Microsoft Corporation is known to most people all over the world because of the revolution of the personal computer. Bill had special interest in programming and would like to try new things. Although he had admission in Harvard College, he had to drop out because of his attachment to programming machine. Today, Microsoft is a house-hold name because someone refused to conform.

 



Similar story goes for Steve Jobs who was the co-founder of Apple Inc. After graduating from high school, Steve Jobs enrolled in Reed College, Portland, Oregon but had to drop out after just one semester. The success story of his inventions that include iPod, iPhone, iPad is the testimony of a man who dared to be different.







I have just mentioned some of the world greatest inventors and businessmen. The list is unending. Most of these men and women did not have formal education. They escaped the mental captivity imposed through formal education. This enabled them to reach down into the deep resource of the mind. Exploring this resource positively transforms a person into a creator. Humans are by nature creative being but this ability is hindered by the formative effect of education. Education teaches conformity. Conformity with the world is never celebrated. The world only celebrates those who are different. If you really wish to excel in life, be prepared to put aside formal education.

Michael Farady had no formal education.

Michael Faraday


The Amateur:



A guy who worked in a London book shop, with virtually no formal education.


The Accomplishment:


Revolutionized our understanding of electricity, and a whole lot more.


If you are using anything powered by electricity, if you know anything about magnetism, if you have ever used a Bunsen burner or if you are a big fan of benzene and the clathrate hydrate of chlorine (and who isn't?), then you owe some respect to Mr. Faraday. Michael Faraday was a genuine experimental genius and is considered one of the most influential scientists of all time. Oh, and he never had any formal education.






Faraday was born into a poor family in industrial London, so he never had any money to pay for a proper school. Instead, at age 14 he took an apprenticeship at the local book-binder for seven years. While he was there, he started to read some of the books that he was binding -- sort of like working in a chocolate factory and eating all the chocolate, only you don't get fired for it.


Now, having read up on a bunch of science stuff and finding himself fascinated with it, he asked London's best scientist, Humphrey Davy, for an assistant job. Humphrey declined. To be honest, Faraday was a guy with absolutely no scientific experience or education who had just asked the best chemist in the business for a job.


He did get a job in the next year though, and then shit went down. In short time, Faraday invented the electric motor, the electric generator, the Bunsen burner, electrolysis and electroplating. He discovered electro-magnetic induction, he discovered benzene, he figured out the shape of magnetic fields, discovered metallic nano-particles (thought to be the birth of nano-science) and something complicated about chlorine. Basically, he was a science machine.


Today, his legacy lives on as one of the best scientists the world has ever seen, despite having never been taught science in his life. Besides, no one could really teach him much science because he discovered most of it. Davy, the world famous chemist who turned down his initial job application, was once asked, "What was your greatest discovery?" He replied, "Michael Faraday."



Michael Faraday




Michael Faraday

Born 22 September 1791

Newington Butts, England

Died 25 August 1867 (aged 75)

Hampton Court, Middlesex, England

Residence United Kingdom

Nationality British

Fields Physics, Chemistry

Institutions Royal Institution

Known for Faraday's law of induction

Electrochemistry

Faraday effect

Faraday cage

Faraday constant

Faraday cup

Faraday's laws of electrolysis

Faraday paradox

Faraday rotator

Faraday-efficiency effect

Faraday wave

Faraday wheel

Lines of force

Influences Humphry Davy

William Thomas Brande

Notable awards Royal Medal (1835 & 1846)

Copley Medal (1832 & 1838)

Rumford Medal (1846)

Signature



Michael Faraday, FRS (22 September 1791 – 25 August 1867) was a British scientist, chemist, physicist and philosopher who greatly contributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His main discoveries include that of the Magnetic Field, Electromagnetic Induction, Diamagnetism and Electrolysis.

Although Faraday received little formal education and knew little of higher mathematics such as calculus, he was one of the most influential scientists in history;[1] historians[2] of science refer to him as having been the best experimentalist in the history of science.[3] It was by his research on the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a DC electric current that Faraday established the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics. Faraday also established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was an underlying relationship between the two phenomena.[4][5] He similarly discovered the principle of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and the laws of electrolysis. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became viable for use in technology.

As a chemist, Faraday discovered benzene, investigated the clathrate hydrate of chlorine, invented an early form of the Bunsen burner and the system of oxidation numbers, and popularised terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion. Faraday ultimately became the first and foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a lifetime position.

Faraday was an excellent experimentalist who conveyed his ideas in clear and simple language; his mathematical abilities, however, did not extend as far as trigonometry or any but the simplest algebra. Maxwell took the work of Faraday and others, and summarized it in a set of equations that is accepted as the basis of all modern theories about electromagnetic phenomena. On Faraday's uses of the lines of force, Maxwell wrote that they show Faraday "to have been in reality a mathematician of a very high order – one from whom the mathematicians of the future may derive valuable and fertile methods."[6]

It is said that Albert Einstein kept a picture of Faraday on his study wall, alongside the picture of Isaac Newton and the photograph of James Clerk Maxwell.[7]

Ridiculously Common Science Myths

The Myth: Evolution causes something to go from “lower” to “higher”







While it is a fact that natural selection weeds out unhealthy genes from the gene pool, there are many cases where an imperfect organism has survived. Some examples of this are fungi, sharks, crayfish, and mosses – these have all remained essentially the same over a great period of time. These organisms are all sufficiently adapted to their environment to survive without improvement.






Other taxa have changed a lot, but not necessarily for the better. Some creatures have had their environments changed and their adaptations may not be as well suited to their new situation. Fitness is linked to their environment, not to progress.
Brightest Star

The Myth: Polaris is the brightest star in the northern hemisphere night skyThe Myth: A penny dropped from a very high building can kill a pedestrian below

Sirius is actually brighter with a magnitude of −1.47 compared to Polaris’ 1.97 (the lower the number the brighter the star). The importance of Polaris is that its position in the sky marks North – and for that reason it is also called the “North Star”. Polaris is the brightest star in the constellation Ursa Minor and, interestingly, is only the current North Star as pole stars change over time because stars exhibit a slow continuous drift with respect to the Earth’s axis.
Pennies from Heaven









This myth is so common it has even become a bit of a cliche in movies. The idea is that if you drop a penny from the top of a tall building (such as the Empire State Building) – it will pick up enough speed to kill a person if it lands on them on the ground. But the fact is, the aerodynamics of a penny are not sufficient to make it dangerous. What would happen in reality is that the person who gets hit would feel a sting – but they would certainly survive the impact.
 
Lightning

 
The Myth: Lightning never strikes the same place twice







Next time you see lightning strike and you consider running to the spot to protect yourself from the next bolt, remember this item! Lightning does strike the same place twice – in fact it is very common. Lightning obviously favors certain areas such as high trees or buildings. In a large field, the tallest object is likely to be struck multiple times until the lightning moves sufficiently far away to find a new target. The Empire State Building gets struck around 25 times a year.
Gravity in Space

Myth: There is no gravity in space
 
In fact, there is gravity in space – a lot of it. The reason that astronauts appear to be weightless because they are orbiting the earth. They are falling towards the earth but moving sufficiently sideways to miss it. So they are basically always falling but never landing. Gravity exists in virtually all areas of space. When a shuttle reaches orbit height (around 250 miles above the earth), gravity is reduced by only 10%.

Facts and Information about Aurora Borealis

Facts and Information about Aurora Borealis



Increase your knowledge of Facts about Aurora Borealis with some brief, but essential information & fast facts about this fascinating subject. Important facts, data and info containing details of the description, name origins and cause of Aurora Borealis, also known as the Northern Lights. Details of the colors, cause and definition of Aurora Borealis, the Northern Lights. A Detailed Fact Sheet covering a whole host of topics including facts about Aurora Borealis, the Northern Lights!






Aurora Borealis






The Definition of Aurora Borealis


The name 'Aurora Borealis' is Latin and aptly describes the phenomenon that is the Aurora Borealis! A basic definition of Aurora Borealis is luminous arches or streams of light which appear in the in Northern regions of the earth. The Latin words 'Aurora Borealis' are roughly translated as ' Northern Lights' - hence the alternative name! Aurora pertains to the lights ( the red dawn ) and Borealis pertains to the North. The term Aurora Borealis was named by the Italian scientist Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). It is interesting to note that 'Aurora' was the name given to the Roman goddess of dawn.
 
The Legends and Myths surrounding Aurora Borealis



Long ago the appearance of the Aurora Borealis, or the Northern Lights caused a range of emotions in the people who witnessed then - alarm, fear, wonder, dread and excitement to name but a few! People did not understand what caused these amazing spectacles of lights in the sky. The phenomena of the Northern Lights were explained by different stories - the legend and myth of bygone days:






The lights were God or Goddesses appearing to mortals






The lights were spirits or souls dancing in the sky






The red colour was associated with legend or myths relating to blood - murder, death, armies, wars and suicide






The Cause of Aurora Borealis


The Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights, is caused when material thrown off the surface of the sun collides with the atmosphere of the Earth. The emission of light from atoms is excited by electrons accelerated along the planet's magnetic field lines






The Sun and the Aurora Borealis - Additional Information about the Cause of the Aurora Borealis


The sun emits high energy ion particles. A cloud consisting of ion particles is called a plasma - also known as the solar wind. The ion plasma cloud, the solar wind, interacts with the edge of the earth's magnetic field and some of the particles are trapped by it. These particles are drawn magnetically down into the ionosphere, above the earth's surface. The particles collide with the gases in the ionosphere and produce the colors and the phenomenon called the Aurora Borealis - the Northern Lights.






Definition of Terms!


Various terms are used to explain the Aurora Borealis. A fast reminder of the definitions are helpful and a definition of each associated term follows:






Ionosphere - A region of the earth's atmosphere where ionization caused by incoming solar radiation affects the transmission of radio waves. It extends from a height of 43 miles (70 kilometers) to 250 miles (400 kilometers) above the surface






Ionization - to convert wholly or partly into ions






Ion - An atom or a group of atoms that has acquired a net electric charge






Solar Wind - A stream of high-speed, ionized particles ejected primarily from the sun's corona






Plasma - An electrically neutral, highly ionized gas composed of ions, electrons, and neutral particles






Radiation - Energy radiated or transmitted as rays, waves, in the form of particles






Atmosphere - The gaseous mass a celestial body, especially the one surrounding the earth, and retained by the gravitational field






The Colors of Aurora Borealis


The array of colours in the Aurora Borealis consist of red, blue, violet, and green. Red is the dominant color.






Aurora Borealis Forecast


The appearance of the Aurora Borealis can be forecast by following events on the sun in relation to the speed of the gaseous matter being thrown off its surface. Various types of forecasts and predictions regarding the appearance of the Aurora Borealis, the Northern Lights, are published on several websites on the Internet. The best months to view the phenomena are between October and March. The NASA Space Weather Bureau www.spaceweather.com provides a forecast of viewing the Aurora Borealis, the Northern Lights






Location to view Aurora Borealis


Locations in the Northern hemisphere including Scandinavia, Canada, Northern America, Northern Europe and Siberia. Auroras occur around the magnetic poles in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres.










Fast Facts & Info about Aurora Borealis, also known as the Northern Lights






Aurora Borealis - luminous arches or streams of light






The Aurora Borealis appears in the Northern hemisphere






'Aurora' was the name given to the Roman goddess of dawn!






The Aurora Borealis are caused by the emission of light from atoms excited by electrons accelerated along the planet's magnetic field lines






Aurora Borealis can effect Earth's communications


















Interesting information about the Aurora Borealis - the Northern Lights


The Aurora Borealis






The solar wind can cause interference with radio, television and satellite communications






The size of Solar Flares are events classified as follows:






C-class events - Small solar flares are described as c-class events and have no effect on communications






M-class events - Medium sized solar flares are described as m-class events and can disrupt the Earth's radio communications






X-class events - Large, or extreme, sized solar flares are described as x-class events and can disrupt the Earth's radio communications






The Aurora Borealis does not effect Airplanes as they fly at altitudes well below the Aurora Borealis






The Aurora Borealis is not effected by changes in the temperature of the Earth

The Great Wall Myth

The Great Wall Myth







It is common mistake to say that The Great wall of China is visible from outer space. It is too thin to be noticed from such a great distance. There are no man made structures that are visible from space or moon. Man made objects start to disappear after 300 miles up. From that distance you can barely see the outline of the Great China Wall. If we consider that distance from Earth to Moon is around 384,403 kilometers/238,857 miles then we can draw reasonable conclusion that it would be impossible to see any man-made structures from such a distance. Astronaut Alan Bean said: "The only thing you can see from the moon is a beautiful sphere, mostly white (clouds), some blue (ocean), patches of yellow (deserts), and every once in a while some green vegetation. No man-made object is visible on this scale. In fact, when first leaving earth's orbit and only a few thousand miles away, no man-made object is visible at that point either."

Ancient India ..An advanced civilisation

Ancient India Facts



India is a country that will mesmerize you with its intriguing history and fascinating past. Though life has become very complex in modern times, the interesting facts of India continue to awe people all over the world. The country is no ordinary country. In fact, it had the components of a prosperous nation since ancient times only. The rich history of India is full of such interesting facts that one is bound to sit and analyze this fascinating country's history with much enthusiasm. For an amazing collection of facts on ancient India, scroll down.

Indians established Harappan culture in Indus Valley Civilization, at a time when many cultures comprised of nomadic forest dwellers over 5000 years ago.


The game of chess was invented in India.


The birth of Algebra, Trigonometry and Calculus happened in India.


The Decimal and Place Value system originated and developed in India.


In the 13th century, a poet saint named Gyandev introduced the game of Snakes and Ladders. Known as Mokshapat during those times, the game had a significant meaning. The snakes stood for vices, while the ladders represented good virtues. The essence of the game was that the ladders or good virtues take people to heaven while snakes or vices take people to a cycle of re-births.


In 700 BC, the world's first university was established in India, in Takshila. It was one of the biggest achievements in the field of education, as more than 10,500 students came from all over the world to receive education in over 60 different subjects. The University of Nalanda was another milestone that was achieved in the field of education in 4th century BC.


The earliest school of medicine known to mankind was Ayurveda and it originated in India. It was consolidated 2500 years ago by Charaka, the Father of Medicine.


As many as 6000 years back, the art of navigation was developed in the River Indus, which was known as Sindh then. In fact, the word 'navigation' is a derivation of the Sanskrit word, 'Navgatih'.


The correct time taken by the earth to revolve around the sun was calculated by the famous astronomer Bhaskaracharya. His calculation showed that the earth takes around 365.258756484 days to go around the sun once.


In the 6th century, the famous Indian Budhayana mathematician calculated the value of "Pi" and also explained the concept of Pythagoras Theorem.


In the 11th century, Quadratic Equations were introduced by Sridharacharya. Indians used numbers that were way too big than European numbers. While the latter limited themselves to 106, the Indians went a step ahead and used numbers as big as 1053.


Surgery existed in India even 2600 years ago, when Sushruta, known as the Father of Surgery, conducted many complex surgeries. The valuable ancient scriptures have detailed information on Cataract, Artificial Limbs, Cesareans, Fractures, Urinary Stone Surgery, Plastic Surgery and Brain Surgeries.


Anesthesia was used in ancient India and one finds detailed knowledge of the human anatomy and its functions.


Two major religions, Buddhism and Jainism were established in India in 500 and 600 BC.


The oldest city in the world that is inhabited even today is Varanasi or Benaras.


The art of Yoga that is now popular worldwide originated in India only and was performed by highly revered sages, in the ancient times.