PLASTICS AND THEIR DISCOVERY

First man made plastic forks.

Celluloid is derived from cellulose and alcoholized camphor. John Wesley Hyatt invented celluloid as a substitute for the ivory in billiard balls in 1868. He first tried using collodion a natural substance, after spilling a bottle of it and discovering that the material dried into a tough and flexible film. However, the material was not strong enough to be used as a billiard ball, until the addition of camphor, a derivative of the laurel tree. The new celluloid could be molded with heat and pressure into a durable shape.

Besides billiard balls, celluloid became famous as the first flexible photographic film used for still photography and motion pictures. John Wesley Hyatt created celluloid in a strip format for movie film. By 1900, movie film was an exploding market for celluloid.

Formaldehyde Resins - Bakelite

After cellulose nitrate, formaldehyde was the next product to advance the technology of plastic. Around 1897, efforts to manufacture white chalkboards led to casein plastics (milk protein mixed with formaldehyde) Galalith and Erinoid are two early tradename examples.

In 1899, Arthur Smith received British Patent 16,275, for "phenol-formaldehyde resins for use as an ebonite substitute in electrical insulation", the first patent for processing a formaldehyde resin. However, in 1907, Leo Hendrik Baekeland improved phenol-formaldehyde reaction techniques and invented the first fully synthetic resin to become commercially successful, tradenamed Bakelite.

Timeline - Precursors

• 1839 - Natural Rubber - method of processing invented by Charles Goodyear
• 1843 - Vulcanite - Thomas Hancock
• 1843 - Gutta-Percha - William Montgomerie
• 1856 - Shellac - Alfred Critchlow, Samuel Peck
• 1856 - Bois Durci - Francois Charles Lepag

Timeline - Beginning of the Plastic Era with Semi Synthetics

• 1839 - Polystyrene or PS discovered - Eduard Simon
• 1862 - Parkesine - Alexander Parkes
• 1863 - Cellulose Nitrate or Celluloid - John Wesley Hyatt
• 1872 - Polyvinyl Chloride or PVC - first created by Eugen Baumann
• 1894 - Viscose Rayon - Charles Frederick Cross, Edward John Bevan

Timeline - Thermosetting Plastics and Thermoplastics

• 1909 - First true plastic Phenol-Formaldehyde tradenamed Bakelite
- Leo Hendrik Baekeland
• 1926 - Vinyl or PVC - Walter Semon invented a plasticized PVC.....................................>
• 1927 - Cellulose Acetate
• 1933 - Polyvinylidene chloride or Saran also called PVDC - accidentally discovered by Ralph Wiley, a Dow Chemical lab worker.
• 1935 - Low-density polyethylene or LDPE - Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett
• 1936 - Acrylic or Polymethyl Methacrylate
• 1937 - Polyurethanes tradenamed Igamid for plastics materials and Perlon for fibers. - Otto Bayer and co-workers discovered and patented the chemistry of polyurethanes
• 1938 - Polystyrene made practical
• 1938 - Polytetrafluoroethylene or PTFE tradenamed Teflon - Roy Plunkett....>
• 1939 - Nylon and Neoprene
considered a replacement for silk and a synthetic rubber respectively Wallace Hume Carothers
• 1941 - Polyethylene Terephthalate or Pet - Whinfield and Dickson
• 1942 - Low Density Polyethylene
• 1942 - Unsaturated Polyester also called PET patented by John Rex Whinfield and James Tennant Dickson
• 1951 - High-density polyethylene or HDPE tradenamed Marlex - Paul Hogan and Robert Banks
• 1951 - Polypropylene or PP - Paul Hogan and Robert Banks

• troduced by Dow Chemicals.

Roy Plunkett

• 1954 - Styrofoam a type of foamed polystyrene foam was invented by Ray McIntire 
• for Dow Chemicals...
• 1964 - Polyimide
• 1970 - Thermoplastic Polyester this includes trademarked Dacron, Mylar, Melinex, Teijin, and Tetoron
• 1978 - Linear Low Density Polyethylene
• 1985 - Liquid Crystal Polymers.
• • 1908 - Cellophane ® - Jacques E. Brandenberger
  

• Jacques E. Brandenberger.

  Leo Hendrik Baekfield
  

Heinrich Hertz and other scientists connected to the invention of Radar and its applications.

Heinrich Hertz
Heinrich Hertz in Germany calculated that an electric current swinging very rapidly back and forth in a conducting wire would radiate electromagnetic waves into the surrounding space (today we would call such a wire an "antenna"). With such a wire he created (in 1886) and detected such oscillations in his lab, using an electric spark, in which the current oscillates rapidly (that is how lightning creates its characteristic crackling noise on the radio!). Today we call such waves "radio waves". At first however they were "Hertzian waves, " and even today we honor the memory of their discoverer by measuring frequencies in Hertz (Hz), oscillations per second--and at radio frequencies, in megahertz (MHz).

Sir Robert Alexander Watson-Watt (1892--1973)
Watson-Watt was the Scottish physicist who developed the radar locating of aircraft in England. He was born in Brechin, Angus, Scotland, educated at St Andrews University in Scotland, and taught at Dundee University. In 1917, he worked at the British Meteorological Office, where he designed devices to locate thunderstorms. Watson-Watt coined the phrase "ionosphere" in 1926. He was appointed as the director of radio research at the British National Physical Laboratory in 1935, where he completed his research into aircraft locating devices. Watson-Watt's other contributions include a cathode-ray direction finder used to study atmospheric phenomena, research in electromagnetic radiation, and inventions used for flight safety.
- Radar was patented (British patent) in April, 1935.

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Christian Andreas Doppler
Doppler RADAR is named after Christian Andreas Doppler. Doppler was an Austrian physicist who first described in 1842, how the observed frequency of light and sound waves was affected by the relative motion of the source and the detector. This phenomenon became known as the Doppler effect.

This is most often demonstrated by the change in the sound wave of a passing train. The sound of the train whistle will become "higher" in pitch as it approaches and "lower" in pitch as it moves away. This is explained as follows: the number of sound waves reaching the ear in a given amount of time (this is called the frequency) determines the tone, or pitch, perceived. The tone remains the same as long as you are not moving. As the train moves closer to you the number of sound waves reaching your ear in a given amount of time increases. Thus, the pitch increases. As the train moves away from you the opposite happens.

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Dr. Robert Rines
Robert Rines is the inventor of high definition radar and the sonogram, a patent attorney, the founder of the Franklin Pierce Law Center and a chaser of the Loch Ness monster.

Heinrich Hertz

Alexader Watson Watt

Chritian Andreas Doppler.

Sir Robert Rines.

Invention of tyres

Charles Goodyear invented vulcanized rubber in 1844 that was later used for the first tires.


In 1888, John Dunlop invented the air-filled or pneumatic tires, however, his were for bicycles.


In 1895, André Michelin was the first person to use pneumatic tires on an automobile, however, not successfully.


In 1911, Philip Strauss invented the first successful tire, which was a combination tire and air filled inner tube. Strauss' company the Hardman Tire & Rubber Company marketed the tires.

• In 1903, P.W. Litchfield of the Goodyear Tire Company patented the first tubeless tire, however, it was never commercially exploited until the 1954 Packard.

In 1904, mountable rims were introduced that allowed drivers to fix their own flats. In 1908, Frank Seiberling invented grooved tires with improved road traction.


In 1910, B.F. Goodrich Company invented longer life tires by adding carbon to the rubber.


Goodrich also invented the first synthetic rubber tires in 1937 made of a patented substance called Chemigum.


Pneumatic Tyre (Tire)


John Boyd Dunlop (1840-1921) was a Scottish veterinarian and the recognized inventor of the first practical pneumatic or inflatable tyre/tire. His patent was for a bicycle tire, granted in 1888. However, Robert William Thomson (1822 - 1873) invented the actual first vulcanised rubber pneumatic tire. Thomson patented his pneumatic tire in 1845, his invention worked well but was to costly to catch on. Dunlop's tire patented in 1888 did, and so he received the most recognition. William Thomson also patented a fountain pen (1849) and a steam traction engine (1867).

Charles Goodyear
John Dunlop

Andre Michelin

Philip Strauss

The History of Vacuum Tubes Also Referred to as Electron Tubes

Vacuum Tube used in audios and TV

A vacuum tube also called a electron tubes is a sealed glass or metal-ceramic enclosure used in electronic circuitry to control the flow of electrons between the metal electrodes sealed inside the tubes. The air inside the tubes is removed by a vacuum. Vacuum tubes are used for: amplification of a weak current, rectification of an alternating current to direct current (AC to DC), generation of oscillating radio-frequency (RF) power for radio and radar, and more.

According to PV Scientific Instruments, "The earliest forms of such tubes appeared in the late 17th century. However, it was not until the 1850s that sufficient technology existed to produce sophisticated versions of such tubes. This technology included efficient vacuum pumps, advanced glassblowing techniques, and the Ruhmkorff induction coil."

Timeline

• In 1875, American, G.R. Carey invented the phototube.
• In 1878, Englishman Sir William Crookes invented the 'Crookes tube', an early prototype of cathode-ray tube.
• In 1895, German, Wilhelm Roengten invented an early prototype Xray tube.
• In 1897, German, Karl Ferdinand Braun invents the cathode ray tube oscilloscope.
• In 1904, John Ambrose Fleming invented the first practical electron tube called the 'Fleming Valve'. Leming invents the vacuum tube diode.
• In 1906, Lee de Forest invented the audion later called the triode, an improvement on the 'Fleming Valve' tube.
• In 1913, William D. Coolidge invented the 'Coolidge Tube', the first practical Xray tube.
• In 1920, RCA began the first commercial electron tube manufacturing.
• In 1921, American Albert Hull invented the magnetron electronic vacuum tube.
• In 1922, Philo T. Farnsworth develops the first tube scanning system for television.
• In 1923, Vladimir K Zworykin invented the iconoscope or the cathode-ray tube and the kinescope.
• In 1926, Hull and Williams co-invented the tetrode electronic vacuum tube.
• In 1938, Americans Russell and Sigurd Varian co-invented the klystron tube.
• 
• John Ambrose Fleming
• 
• Computer Vacuum tube

• Lee DeForest Biography

  Lee De Forest

  Born: 1873-08-26 Birthplace: Council Bluffs, IA Died: 1961-06-30 Location of Death: Hollywood, CA Remains: Buried, San Fernando Mission Cemetery, Mission Hills, CA Race: White Political Party: Republican Field: Inventor Famous for: Inventor of the Audion vacuum tube

Orville Wright & Wilbur Wright - First Piloted & Powered Airplane

Orville Wright & Wilbur Wright - First Piloted & Powered Airplane

"Flight is possible to man...[and] I feel that it will soon cost me an increased amount of money if not my life". - Wilbur Wright Co-Inventor of the first engined airplane.

Orville Wright (1871-1948) and Wilbur Wright (1867-1912) had requested a patent application for a "flying machine" nine months before their first successful flight, they were that confidant.

As part of the Wright Brothers' systematic practice of photographing every prototype and test of their various flying machines, they had persuaded an attendant from a nearby lifesaving station to snap Orville Wright in full flight. The craft soared to an altitude of 10 feet, traveled 120 feet, and landed 12 seconds after takeoff. After making two longer flights that day, Orville and Wilbur Wright sent a telegram to their father, instructing him to inform the press that manned flight had taken place. This was birth of the first real airplane.

Airplane Technology - How Does an Airplane Fly

All things that fly need air. Air has power to push and pull on the birds, balloons, kites and planes. So how does an airplane use the properties of air to create flight.

Post Propeller - Jet Airplane Technology

Inventors continued to improve airplanes after the Wright Brothers, and this led to the invention of jets, which are used by both the military and commercial airlines. A jet is an airplane propelled by jet engines. Jets fly much faster than propeller-powered aircraft and at higher altitudes - as high as 10,000 to 15,000 meters (about 33,000 to 49,000 ft).

Two engineers, Frank Whittle of the United Kingdom and Hans von Ohain of Germany, developed the jet engine during the late 1930s.

Wright brothers in their workshop.

Wilbur and Orville Wright and Their Accomplishments, an oil painting by Dwight Mutchler, was completed in 1959. It honors Ohioans, the Wright brothers, who were first in flight. Their Dayton, Ohio bicycle shop can be seen on the right side of the . This art work is on display near the Rotunda of the Ohio Statehouse.

Inventions from 1900-1999

Orville and Wilbur Wright	Orville was at the controls of the world’s first powered flight while Wilbur observed (1903).
John Ambrose Fleming	Invented the diode - a vital part of radios and televisions (1904)
Christian Hulsmeyer	The first radar system used in shipping (1904)
Leo Baekeland	Inventor of plastic (1905)
Reginald Fessenden	Invented radio broadcasting (1906)
Mary Phelps Jacob	Invented the bra (1913)
Gidoen Sundback	Invented the zip (1913)
John Thompson	Invented the sub-machine gun (1920)
Frederick Banting / Charles Best	Isolated insulin (1921)
Karel Capek	Invented the first robot (1921)
Clarence Birdseye	Started the idea of frozen food (1924)
John Logie Baird	Invented the television - its first public demonstration was at Selfridges in London (1925)
Robert Goddard	Invented liquid fuel rocket (1926)
Alexander Fleming	Discovered penicillin and paved the way for antibiotics (1928)
Frank Whittle	The jet engine (1930)
Percy Shaw	Inventor of the cats eyes - a major factor in improved road safety (1934)
Laszlo Jose Biro	Invented the ball point pen (1938)
Igor Sikorsky	Inventor of the modern helicopter (1939)
Enrico Fermi	Built the first nuclear reactor at the University of Chicago (1942)
Willem Kolff	Invented the kidney dialysis machine (1944)
Percy LeBaron Spencer	Invented the microwave oven (1946)
George deMestral	Invented velcro (1948)
Carl Djerassi	Developed the contraceptive pill (1951)
Sir Christopher Cockerell	Invented the hovercraft (1955)
Jonas Salk	Made the vaccine for polio (1955)
Jack Kilby	Made the first microchip - the start of miniaturisation of technology (1958)
Wilson Greatbatch	Invented the first heart pacemaker (1960)
Douglas Engelbart	Invented the computer mouse (1964)
Stephanie Kwolek	Invented kevlar (1966)
Jack Kilby, Jerry Merryman and James von Tassel	The portable calculator (1967)
George Gray	Invented the LCD and LED (1970)
Herbert Boyer	Pioneer of genetic engineering (1973)
Akio Morita	Inventor of the personal stereo (1979)
Tim Berners-Lee	Creator of the World Wide Web (1989)
Ian Wilmut	Headed team that produced the first cloned sheep - Dolly (1997)

Christian beliefs..From the net

Christian beliefs

Below is a list of some things that Christians believe:

1. God created all that is seen and unseen
Christians believe that God is the creator of all people, the world, the universe, and everything seen and unseen. This is based on various Bible passages, including the first chapter of the Bible's book of Genesis.

2. Jesus is the Son of God and is one with God
Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God, that he is one with God, and that he was sent here for our salvation. In John 10:30 (NIV translation), John the Apostle quotes Jesus as saying, "I and the Father are one."
3. Jesus was conceived of the Holy Spirit and born of the virgin Mary
Christians believe that Jesus was conceived of the Holy Spirit of God and born through the Virgin Mary. As explained in Matthew 1:18 (NIV), "This is how the birth of Jesus Christ came about: His mother Mary was pledged to be married to Joseph, but before they came together, she was found to be with child through the Holy Spirit."

4. Jesus suffered and was crucified
Jesus suffered and died for our sins. Jesus was falsely accused of being an anti-government rebel and, as explained in Matthew 27:23-56, he was brought to Pontius Pilate to be executed through crucifixion. He was mocked, beaten, taunted and crucified by the Romans.
5. Jesus died and was buried
Jesus died after being crucified. He was buried in a tomb that was owned by a man named Joseph of Arimathea, who was a follower of Jesus. In Matthew 27:57-60 (NIV), the Bible says, "As evening approached, there came a rich man from Arimathea, named Joseph, who had himself become a disciple of Jesus. Going to Pilate, he asked for Jesus' body, and Pilate ordered that it be given to him. Joseph took the body, wrapped it in a clean linen cloth, and placed it in his own new tomb that he had cut out of the rock. He rolled a big stone in front of the entrance to the tomb and went away."

6. Jesus rose again (the Resurrection)
Jesus was resurrected, which means that he died and was brought back to life again. The resurrection of Jesus is described in various places throughout the Bible's New Testament, including in the New Testament book of John, chapter 20. As explained in the Bible, all people who die before Judgment Day will be resurrected. The people who believe in Jesus will be resurrected to eternal life in Heaven. Those who do not believe in Jesus will be condemned, eternally, by their own sins, as explained in John 3:18, and elsewhere.
7. Jesus ascended into Heaven
Jesus ascended into Heaven and is seated at the right hand of God the Father. This happened after Jesus was resurrected. We too can go to Heaven, through faith in Jesus Christ. As explained in Mark 16:19-20 (NIV): "After the Lord Jesus had spoken to them, he was taken up into heaven and he sat at the right hand of God. Then the disciples went out and preached everywhere, and the Lord worked with them and confirmed his word by the signs that accompanied it."

8. Jesus will return to judge the living and the dead
Jesus will return to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end. In Matthew 24:30 (NIV), Jesus is quoted as saying that he will return: "At that time the sign of the Son of Man will appear in the sky, and all the nations of the earth will mourn. They will see the Son of Man coming on the clouds of the sky, with power and great glory." Additional details are provided elsewhere, such as in the New Testament passages of John 5:28,29 and 2 Timothy 4:1-3. You can learn more about Jesus at the www.About-Jesus.org web site.
9. Anyone can have salvation
All people may receive salvation in the name of Jesus Christ. In Romans 10:12 (NIV), for example, it says: "For there is no difference between Jew and Gentile - the same Lord is Lord of all and richly blesses all who call on him".
10. People who repent of their sins will be forgiven
People are forgiven and saved if they confess their sins and confess their belief in the resurrection of Jesus. As explained in Romans 10:9-10 (NIV), "That if you confess with your mouth, 'Jesus is Lord,' and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved. For it is with your heart that you believe and are justified, and it is with your mouth that you confess and are saved."
John 3:16 (NIV):
"For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life."

Basic Tenets of Sikhism..from the net

Sikhism: Its beliefs,
practices, symbol, & names

Sikh Beliefs:

	Goal: The goal of every Sikh is to build a close, loving relationship with God.
	Deity: Sikhs believe in a single, Formless God, with many names, who can be known through meditation. his concept is similar to Islam whose followers believe in a single God who has 99 names. The Mool Mantar, the first hymn composed by Guru Nanak, is recited daily by many Sikhs. It contains a description of many of the attributes of God: There is only one God; His Name is Truth; He is the Creator; He is without fear; He is without hate; He is beyond time (i.e. is immortal); He is beyond birth and death; He is self-existent. 1 Only he can be worshiped. Rahras, a Sikh evening prayer states: "[O God] since I have fallen at your feet, I do not care for anybody else. I do not follow the religious ways preached by various religions believing in Ram, Mohammed, Puran or Qur'an. The Simritis, Shastras and the Vedas lay down different doctrines. But I do not recognize any of these. O God, I have written these hymns with your grace and kindness. All that has been said is in fact spoken by you." 2
	Reincarnation: They believe in samsara (the repetitive cycle of birth, life and death), karma (the accumulated sum of one's good and bad deeds, and reincarnation the belief of a rebirth following death. These beliefs are similar to Hinduism. "Each individual has many reincarnations, but being born a human means the soul is nearing the end of rebirth. God judges each soul at death and may either reincarnate the soul or, if pure enough, allow it to rest with him."
	Caste system: Sikhs have rejected the caste system of the Hindu religion. They believe that everyone has equal status in the eyes of God. This is a very important principle that permeates all Sikh beliefs, behaviors, and rituals.
	Code of Conduct: During the 18th century, there were a number of attempts to prepare an accurate portrayal of Sikh customs. None received the support of most Sikhs. Sikh scholars and theologians started in 1931 to prepare the Reht Maryada -- the Sikh code of conduct and conventions. It is "the only version authorized by the Akal Takht, the seat of supreme temporal authority for Sikhs. It's implementation has successfully achieved a high level of uniformity in the religious and social practices of Sikhism"  throughout the world. It contains 27 articles. Article 1 defines who is a Sikh: "Any human being who faithfully believes in (i) One Immortal Being, (ii) Ten Gurus, from Guru Nanak Dev to Guru Gobind Singh, (iii) The Guru Granth Sahib, (iv) The utterances and teachings of the ten Gurus and (v) the baptism bequeathed by the tenth Guru, and who does not owe allegiance to any other religion, is a Sikh."
	There are a number of traditions within Sikhism. Thousands of Sikhs, both in India and worldwide, follow living gurus who have lineages traceable back to Guru Gobind Singh. In Canada and elsewhere, major strains are becoming evident between liberal and conservative wings of the religion, as some Sikhs accommodate to the surrounding culture.

Sikh Practices:

	Prayers: repeated multiple times each day.
	Worship: Sikhs are prohibited from worshipping idols, images, or icons.
	Temples: There are over 200 Gurdwaras (temples, shrines or holy places) in India alone. The most sacred is Harmandir Sahib, the Golden Temple, at Amritsar. However, all places where the Sri Guru Granth Sahib is installed are equally holy.
	The Five K's: These are clothing practices followed by stricter Sikhs, called Khalsa saints: Kesa (long hair, which is never cut). This term is sometimes used to refer to the turban that is used to cover the hair. Kangah (comb) Kacha (short pants) Kara (metal bracelet) Kirpan (a ceremonial dagger)
	The Sikh Code of Conduct states, "A Sikh must not take hemp, opium, liquor, tobacco, or any intoxicant." Drinking of alcoholic beverages or smoking is thus forbidden.

 The Khanda -- the Sikh symbol

The Khanda is the main Sikh symbol. It is seen at the top of this essay, used by permission of www.hatisoft.com ₄ It is composed of four items, all traditional Sikh weapons:

	A vertical double edged sword with a broad blade, also called a Khanda.
	Two curved swords, called kirpans. They are called miri and piri, after the names given to his personal kirpans by Guru Hargobind.
	A ring called a chakker (aka chakram). It is a very effective weapon, with a range of up to 50 meters (165 feet). This has been popularized in North America by the television series Xena the Warrior Princess.

The Khanda has been interpreted symbolically in many ways. one is:

"The Sikh emblem, Khanda, contains a ring of steel representing the Unity of God, a two edged sword symbolizing God's concern for truth and justice, and two crossed swords curved around the outside to signify God's spiritual power." ₄

Sikh names:

One unusual feature of Sikhism is that all Sikh males share the name: "Singh" which means "lion." Women  carry the name of "Kaur" which means "princess." This practice apparently started in the early years of the religion, and was a reflection of the Sikh's absolute rejection of the Hindu practice of caste. In Hinduism at the time, one's last name often identified their caste in society. This rigidly determined where they were positioned in society. Caste is totally incompatible with Sikh's beliefs of equality. Judging by the names of Sikhs mentioned in media articles, many Sikh males now use "Singh" as a middle name.

1. 
2. Guru Nanak
3. 
4. Golden temple at Amritsar.
5. 
6. Guru Govind Singh
7. 
8. Guru Angad.
9. 
10. Family of Guru Nanak
11. 
12. Guru Gobind Singh
13. 
14. All the founders of Sikhism