The Father of Cool
Willis Haviland Carrier - The History of Air Conditioning
Willis Haviland Carrier Recommended Reading on Air Conditioning • The History of Air Conditioning Related Innovations • The History of the Refrigerator • Home Innovations • Kitchen Appliances "I fish only for edible fish, and hunt only for edible game even in the laboratory." - Willis Haviland Carrier on being practical. In 1902, only one year after Willis Haviland Carrier graduated from Cornell University with a Masters in Engineering, the first air (temperature and humidity) conditioning was in operation, making one Brooklyn printing plant owner very happy. Fluctuations in heat and humidity in his plant had caused the dimensions of the printing paper to keep altering slightly, enough to ensure a misalignment of the colored inks. The new air conditioning machine created a stable environment and aligned four-color printing became possible. All thanks to the new employee at the Buffalo Forge Company, who started on a salary of only $10.00 per wee

Nobel Prize in 1994

Alfred G. Gilman

Martin Rodbell

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1994 was awarded jointly to Alfred G. Gilman and Martin Rodbell "for their discovery of G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells"

Nobel Prize 1995

Edward B. Lewis

Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard

Eric F. Wieschaus

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1995 was awarded jointly to Edward B. Lewis, Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard and Eric F. Wieschaus "for their discoveries concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development".

Carbo Dating

Radiocarbon dating (sometimes simply known as carbon dating) is a radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring radioisotope carbon-14 (¹⁴C) to estimate the age of carbonaceous materials up to about 58,000 to 62,000 years.^[1] Raw, i.e. uncalibrated, radiocarbon ages are usually reported in radiocarbon years "Before Present" (BP), "Present" being defined as 1950 CE. Such raw ages can be calibrated to give calendar dates. One of the most frequent uses of radiocarbon dating is to estimate the age of organic remains from archaeological sites. When plants fix atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) into organic material during photosynthesis they incorporate a quantity of ¹⁴C that approximately matches the level of this isotope in the atmosphere (a small difference occurs because of isotope fractionation, but this is corrected after laboratory analysis). After plants die or they are consumed by other organisms (for example, by humans or other animals) the ¹⁴C fraction of this organic material declines at a fixed exponential rate due to the radioactive decay of ¹⁴C. Comparing the remaining ¹⁴C fraction of a sample to that expected from atmospheric ¹⁴C allows the age of the sample to be estimated.
The technique of radiocarbon dating was developed by Willard Libby and his colleagues at the University of Chicago in 1949. Emilio Segrè asserted in his autobiography that Enrico Fermi suggested the concept to Libby in a seminar at Chicago that year. Libby estimated that the steady state radioactivity concentration of exchangeable carbon-14 would be about 14 disintegrations per minute (dpm) per gram. In 1960, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry for this work. He first demonstrated the accuracy of radiocarbon dating by accurately estimating the age of wood from an ancient Egyptian royal barge for which the age was known from historical documents.^[2][3]

Diamond (gemstone) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Diamond (gemstone) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Diamond (gemstone)

Material

Material properties Crystallographic defects Formation and surfacing

The 4 Cs

Carat · Clarity Color · Cut

Production

List of mines Diamond cutting The diamond industry De Beers

Cultural impact

History · Symbolism Famous diamonds

Imitations and enhancements

Synthetics · Simulants Enhancements

See also

Index of related articles Wikipedia Commons media

A diamond (from the ancient Greek ἀδάμας – adámas, meaning "unbreakable," "proper," or "unalterable") is one of the best-known and most sought-after gemstones. Diamonds have been known to humankind and used as decorative items since ancient times; some of the earliest references can be traced to India.

The hardness of diamond and its high dispersion of light – giving the diamond its characteristic "fire" – make it useful for industrial applications and desirable as jewelry. Diamonds are such a highly traded commodity that multiple organizations have been created for grading and certifying them based on the four Cs, which are carat, cut, color, and clarity. Other characteristics, such as presence or lack of fluorescence, also affect the desirability and thus the value of a diamond used for jewelry.

Perhaps the most famous use of the diamond in jewelry is in engagement rings, which became popular in the early to mid 20th century due to an advertising campaign by the De Beers company, though diamond rings have been used to symbolize engagements since at least the 15th century. The diamond's high value has also been the driving force behind dictators and revolutionary entities, especially in Africa, using slave and child labor to mine blood diamonds to fund conflicts.

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1996

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1996

Peter C. Doherty

Rolf M. Zinkernagel

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1996 was awarded jointly to Peter C. Doherty and Rolf M. Zinkernagel "for their discoveries concerning the specificity of the cell mediated immune defence"

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1998

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1998

Stanley B. Prusiner

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1997 was awarded to Stanley B. Prusiner "for his discovery of Prions - a new biological principle of infection".

The History of Neon Signs

The History of Neon Signs

Georges Claude - Inventor of the First Neon Lamp

The word neon comes from the Greek "neos," meaning "the new gas." Neon gas was discovered by William Ramsey and M. W. Travers in 1898 in London. Neon is a rare gaseous element present in the atmosphere to the extent of 1 part in 65,000 of air. It is obtained by liquefaction of air and separated from the other gases by fractional distillation.

The French engineer, chemist, and inventor Georges Claude (b. Sept. 24, 1870, d. May 23, 1960), was the first person to apply an electrical discharge to a sealed tube of neon gas (circa 1902) to create a lamp. Georges Claude displayed the first neon lamp to the public on December 11, 1910, in Paris.

Georges Claude patented the neon lighting tube on Jan. 19th, 1915 - U.S. Patent

The History of Aerosol Spray Cans

The History of Aerosol Spray Cans

The concept of an aerosol can originated as early as 1790.

Aerosol Spray Can

StockXchng Daniel Nagy

using methyl and ethyl chloride as propellants.

Erik Rotheim

On November 23, 1927, Norwegian engineer Erik Rotheim (also spelled Eric Rotheim) patented the first aerosol can and valve that could hold and dispense products and propellant systems. This was the forerunner of the modern aerosol can and valve. In 1998, the Norwegian post office issued a stamp celebrating the Norwegian invention of the spray can.

Lyle Goodhue and William Sullivan

During World War II, the U.S. government funded research into a portable way for service men to spray malaria-carrying bugs. Department of Agriculture researchers, Lyle Goodhue and William Sullivan, developed a small aerosol can pressurized by a liquefied gas (a fluorocarbon) in 1943. It was their design that made products like hair spray possible, along with the work of another inventor Robert Abplanalp.

Robert Abplanalp - Valve Crimp

In 1949, 27-year-old Robert H. Abplanalp’s invention of a crimp on valve enabled liquids to be sprayed from a can under the pressure of an inert gas. Spray cans, mainly containing insecticides, were available to the public in 1947 as a result of their use by U.S. soldiers for preventing insect-borne diseases. Abplanalp’s invention made of lightweight aluminum made the cans a cheap and practical way to dispense liquids foams, powders, and creams. In 1953, Robert Abplanal patented his crimp-on valve "for dispensing gases under pressure." His Precision Valve Corporation was soon earning over $100 million manufacturing one billion aerosol cans annually in the United States and one-half billion in 10 other countries.

In the mid-1970s, concern over the use of fluorocarbons adversely effecting the ozone layer drove Abplanalp back into the lab for a solution. Substituting water-soluble hydrocarbons for the damaging fluorocarbons created an environmentally friendly aerosol can that did not harm the environment. This put the manufacture of aerosol spray can products into high gear.

Robert Abplanal invented both the first clog-free valve for spray cans and the "Aquasol" or pump spray, which used water-soluble hydrocarbons as the propellant source.

Spray Paint in a Can

In 1949, canned spray paint was invented by Edward Seymour, the first paint color was aluminum. Edward Seymour's wife Bonnie suggested the use of an aerosol can filled with paint. Edward Seymour founded Seymour of Sycamore, Inc. of Chicago, USA, to manufacture his spray paints.

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1998

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1998

Robert F. Furchgott

Louis J. Ignarro

Ferid Murad

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1998 was awarded jointly to Robert F. Furchgott, Louis J. Ignarro and Ferid Murad "for their discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system".